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Author: 


Adams,  Henry  Foster 


Title: 


Advertising  and  its  mental 
laws 

Place: 

New  York 

Date: 

1922 


1 


MASTER   NEGATIVE   # 


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Adams,  Henry  Foster. 

Advertising  and  its  mental  laws,  by  Henry  Foster 
Adams  ...    New  York,  The  Macmillan  company,  i91€r 

xi,  333p.    illus.,  plates,  diagrs.    19^™.      |$1.50  3  19  2 8. 


1.  Advertising.    2.  Psychology. 

Library  of  Congress 
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ADVERTISING  AND   ITS    MENTAL 

LAWS 


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THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

YORK   •    BOSTON  •   CHICAGO  •  DALLAS 
ATLANTA  •   SAN   FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limiteo 

LONDON  •   BOMBAY  •   CALCUTTA 
MKLBOURNB 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


ADVERTISING  AND  ITS 
MENTAL  LAWS 


BY 


■I 

t 


HENRY  FOSTER  ADAMS,   Ph.D. 

INSTRUCTOR  IN  PSYCHOLOGY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  MICHIGAN 


SCHOOL  OF  BUSINESS 


NetD  gorft 
THE   MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

1922 

All  rights  reserved 


1 


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r,  1916, 
By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electn>t3rped.    Published  October,  1916. 


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HoriDooD  Ifittn 

J.  8.  Gushing  Co.  —  Berwick  A  Smith  Co. 

Norwood,  Mms.,  U.S. A. 


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1 


I 


PREFACE 

This  book  is  intended  for  students  of  the  Psychology 
of  Advertising,  though  much  of  the  material  which  is 
contained  in  it  will  undoubtedly  be  of  benefit  to  the 
man  who  is  in  the  practical  side  of  advertising.  The 
behavioristic  standpoint  has  been  adhered  to  through- 
out, for  the  student  of  advertising  is  interested  primarily 
in  what  mind  does,  not  in  what  it  is. 

I  have  endeavored  to  accomplish  three  things  in  the 
development  of  the  work.  First,  to  present  in  simple 
language  the  basic  facts  and  principles  of  psychology 
which  are  related  to  advertising  and  point  out  the  appli- 
cation of  the  principles.  Secondly,  I  have  endeavored 
to  reduce  the  complexity  of  a  printed  advertisement  to 
its  elements  and  to  show  with  mathematical  exactness 
the  effect  of  the  various  elements.  This  has  been  done 
in  large  measure  by  devising  experiments  to  test  the 
effect  of  one  factor  in  isolation,  then  the  effect  of  a 
second,  a  third,  etc.  The  book,  consequently,  is  an 
endeavor  to  put  the  Psychology  of  Advertising  on  a 
quantitative  basis,  a  strictly  scientific  basis.  Thirdly, 
the  results  of  the  experiments  which  have  been  carried 
on  in  the  laboratory  have  been  compared  with  the  re- 
sults of  actual  advertising  campaigns  in  which  similar 


VI 


PREFACE 


PREFACE 


vu 


problems  have  been  involved  and  it  has  been  found  that 
the  relationship  between  the  business  test  and  the  theo- 
retical test  is  strikingly  close. 

In  order  to  produce  effective  advertising,  it  is  neces- 
sary that  the  advertisement  lead  to  some  action.  To 
lead  to  action,  it  must  arrest  and  hold  the  attention  of 
the  reader,  it  must  create  a  favorable  impression,  and 
it  must  usually  be  remembered.  The  majority  of  adver- 
tisements which  appear  are  very  good  from  the  first 
standpoint,  good  from  the  second  and  third,  but  only 
fair  for  inciting  the  reader  of  the  advertisement  to  ac- 
tion. Consequently,  I  have  endeavored  to  analyze  action 
with  some  thoroughness,  showing  why  so  many  adver- 
tisements are  lacking  in  effectiveness,  why  people  do 
not  act  in  response  to  them,  and  giving  in  some  detail 
devices  which  will  improve  the  pulling  power  of  an 
advertisement. 

The  book  could  never  have  been  written  without  the 
aid  of  many  persons.  I  am  indebted  to  the  published 
works  of  Gale,  Hollingworth,  Strong,  Scott  and  Starch 
for  much  of  my  material.  My  thanks  are  also  due  to 
Printet'slnk,  Advertising  and  Selling,  Judicious  Adver- 
tising, and  System  for  permission  to  quote  from  their 
pages.  The  material  on  the  adequacy  of  the  order  of 
merit  experiments  as  applied  to  advertising  is  taken 
with  few  changes  from  an  article  by  the  author  which 
appeared  in  the  Psychological  Review  for  September, 
191 5.  Two  memory  experiments,  one  on  the  relative 
efficiency  of  size  and  frequency  in  forming  associations, 
the  other  on  the  effectiveness  of  duplication  and  varia- 
tion in  advertising,  are  taken  substantially  unchanged 
from  articles  by  the  author  in  t\\^  Journal  of  Philosophy, 


■V 


Psychology,  and  Scientific  Methods,  Vol.  12,  pages  477  ff. 
and  Vol.  13,  pages  141  ff.  For  the  many  experiments 
which  are  quoted  in  the  book,  acknowledgments  are  due 
to  the  following  students :  — 

The  Attention  Value  of  Different  Parts  of  the  Page, 
William  A.  Hart,  Miss  McNamara,  Mr.  Ellis,  Mr.  Bar- 
nard, and  Mr.  Baum. 

The  Attention  Value  of  Size,  Howard  Marsh,  Frank 
Willard. 

The  Attention  Value  of  Pictures,  Chester  Lang  and 
Samuel  Rosenfield. 

Association  Experiments,  Samuel  Rosenfield. 

Memory  Experiments,  Kenneth  Wesley,  Hugo  Wag- 
enseil,  and  H.  Kirk  White. 

For  the  experiment  on  the  effects  of  the  surrounding 
media.  Miss  Isabel  Drummond. 

For  reading  the  manuscript  and  making  many  helpful 
suggestions,  I  owe  much  to  Professor  Pillsbury,  Miss 
Sara  Whedon,  Miss  Anna  H.  Adams,  and  my  wife. 


HENRY  F.  ADAMS. 


Ann  Arbor,  Mich., 
July,  1916. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 


f 


FASB 

Preface v 

J    I.  Definitions  and  Functions  of  Advertising        .  i 

II.  Advertising  and  Psychology        .        .        .       .18 

III.  Advertising  as  a  Part  of  the  Environment     .  28 

IV.  The  Different  Kinds  of  Mediums       •        •        •  37 
V.  Informing  the  Customer 48 

VI.  Experiments  in  Advertising 57 

VII.  Statistical  Methods      ......  70 

VIII.  Attention         .        .        .   ' 82 

IX.  Holding  the  Attention 123 

X.  Association 153 

XI.  Fusions 196 

XII.  Memory 216 

XIII.  The  Appearance  of  Advertisements   .        .        .  249 

XIV.  Action 277 

XV.  Sex  Differences 317 

XVI.  Results  obtained  in  Advertising         .       .       .  320 


LIST   OF   FIGURES   AND 
ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGB 


FIGURE 

I.    Figure  showing  number  of  magazines  in  the  homes  of 

persons  of  different  incomes        .... 

II.     Figure  showing  the  total  number  of  lines  carried 

monthly  by  certain  magazines     .... 

III.  Chart  showing  the  color  relations      .... 

IV.  Chart  showing  the  attention  value  of  size  . 
V.     Chart  showing  the  attention  value  of  frequency 

VI.  Campbell's  Soup  Advertisement         .         .        facing 

VII.  Eastman  Kodak  Advertisement         .... 

VIII.  Old  Dutch  Cleanser  Advertisement  .        .       facing 

IX.  Curtis  Publishing  Company  Advertisement 

X.  General  Electric  Company  Advertisement 

XI.  Tiffany  and  Company  Advertisement 

XII.  Vanity  Fair  Advertisement 

XIII.  Curve  showing  that  the  amount  learned  varies  directly 

with  the  number  of  repetitions    .... 

XIV.  Curves  showing  the  relative  memory  value  of  different 

parts  of  the  advertising  sections  .... 

XV.  Fusion  of  the  curves  in  Fig.  XIV      .... 

XVI.  Curve  of  forgetting 246 

XVII.  Ivory  Soap  Advertisement         .        .        .       facing  274 

XVIII.  Ivory  Soap  Advertisement         ...  "  276 

XIX.  Pears  Soap  Advertisement         ...  "  278 

XX.  Curve  showing  the  effect  of  intensity  on  reaction  time  287 

XXI.  Curve  showing  the  effect  of  size  on  reaction  time        .  289 

XXII.  Curve  showing  the  effect  of  duration  on  reaction  time  290 

XXIII.  Woodbury's  Facial  Soap  Advertisement   .       facing  313 

» 


44 

45 

55 

109 

"5 

206 

207 
208 
210 
211 
212 
213 

217 

222 
223 


ADVERTISING  AND  ITS 
MENTAL  LAWS 


II 


CHAPTER  I 
Definitions  and  Functions  of  Advertising 

That  it  is  very  difficult  to  state  clearly  and  definitely 
just  what  constitutes  advertising,  is  evidenced  by  the 
fact  that  many  of  the  advertising  men  who  have  written 
books  upon  the  subject  have  refrained  from  any  attempt 
at  definition.  A  moment's  consideration  will  show  that 
any  sharp  line  of  division  between  advertising  and  pub- 
licity is  practically  impossible.  The  individual  or  com- 
pany spending  many  thousands  of  dollars  for  the  back 
cover  of  a  magazine,  and  printing  thereupon  a  statement 
concerning  any  commodity,  is  making  use  of  advertising. 
Likewise,  the  one  who  sends  out  hand-bills,  letters,  and 
the  like,  is  an  advertiser.  He  is  at  least  making  himself 
and  his  commodity  known  to  the  public. 

Can  it  be  said  also,  that  the  preacher  whose  sermon 
appears  in  the  daily  newspaper,  the  doctor  whose  brilliant 
and  daring  operation  is  featured  in  the  daily  press,  the 
author  whose  story  appears  in  a  magazine,  the  writer 
whose  volume  is  mentioned  in  the  book  notices,  —  may 
it  be  said  that  these  men  are  advertisers  too  ?  |  Each  is  at 
least  making  himself  and  his  commodity  known  to  the 
public.^   From  one  standpoint,  each  is  an  advertiser. 

B  I 


2       ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 


But  there  are  two  differences  which  must  be  taken  into 
account.  In  the  first  case,  the  man  pays  for  his  advertise- 
ment ;  in  the  second,  he  does  not.  Secondly,  because  the 
individual  pays  for  his  space,  he  may  control  what  goes 
into  it,  making  statements  as  favorable  to  himself  and 
his  commodity  as  he  cares  to.  The  advertiser  of  the 
second  type,  however,  is  very  largely  helpless  in  determin- 
ing what  shall  be  said  of  him  or  of  his  commodity. 

The  term  advertising  will  be  used  throughout  the  work 
to  mean  the  variety  which  is  paid  for.  Since  this  is  the 
only  sort  which  can  be  controlled  by  the  advertiser,  it 
is  the  only  kind  to  which  he  can  apply  the  various  laws 
for  making  it  more  efficient. 

The  following  are  a  few  of  the  definitions  which  have 
been  given  to  advertising  by  men  who  have  written  upon 
the  subject.^ 

Wadsworth  ^  gives  a  definition  to  the  effect  that  adver- 
tising consists  of  any  effort  which  has  for  its  purpose  the 
obtaining  of  distribution  or  demand  for  a  commodity 
without  personal  solicitation. 

Tipper  and  Hotchkiss^  say  that  *' advertising  repre- 
sents that  part  of  the  process  of  selling  which  can  be 
accomplished  by  appealing  to  consumers  or  customers  in 
mass,  no  matter  what  means  is  taken  to  do  so.'' 

Mahin  *  states  that  ^'the  finished  work  of  an  advertiser 
is  not  a  material  substance  which  can  be  seen  with  the 
eyes  and  touched  with  the  hands,  but  a  definite  positive 
impression  in  the  minds  of  possible  buyers  which  is 
reflected  in  the  voluntary  purchase  of  the  goods  which 
the  advertiser  wishes  to  sell." 

The  first  definition  would  include  both  the  free  and  the 
paid  kinds  of  advertising,  as  would   the  second  also. 

*  The  reader  is  referred  to  Printer's  Ink  for  recent  years.  A  large 
number  of  definitions  of  advertising  are  given. 

'  Wadsworth,  "  Principles  and  Practice  of  Advertising,"  page  xiv. 
'Tipper  and  Hotchkiss,  "Advertising,"  page  22. 

*  Mahin,  "Advertising  —  Selling  the  Consumer,"  page  13. 


DEFINITIONS  AND   FUNCTIONS 


\i 


The  third,  by  its  more  expUcit  wording,  could  logically 
be  applied  to  all  forms  of  paid  advertising,  but  not  all 
of  the  free.  The  main  criticism  of  these  definitions  is  that 
they  do  not  satisfactorily  mark  off  commercial  advertising 
from  free  publicity.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  all  three 
definitions  grant  very  frankly  that  the  advertiser  has 
something  to  sell.  Contrast  with  these  the  definitions 
given  by  Richardson.^ 

1.  ** Publicity  work  conducted  on  educational  lines, 
aiming  to  make  the  name  and  merit  of  a  commodity 
familiar  to  buyers  throughout  the  advertiser's  get-at-able 
territory,  or,  having  made  the  selling  points  known,  seek- 
ing to  keep  them  fresh  in  the  buyer's  mind. 

2.  "Printed  salesmanship,  telling  the  story  of  the 
goods  in  a  dignified,  convincing,  yet  interesting  manner, 
in  words  easily  understood  but  containing  no  suspicion 
of  exaggeration,  or  in  pictures  that  give  faithful  illustra- 
tions of  the  goods. 

3.  "The  gradual  process  of  applying  layer  after  layer 
of  facts  relative  to  quality  and  value  to  the  public  mind, 
so  that,  step  by  step,  the  impression  of  goodness  is 
strengthened  and  a  confidence  wall  built  round  the  prod- 
uct to  the  exclusion  of  competing  brands." 

The  last  three  definitions  represent  the  attitude  of  the 
advertiser  of  five  to  five  thousand  years  ago,  emphasizing 
as  they  do  the  pubhcity  side  of  advertising.  Informing 
the  public  seemed  to  be  the  essential  thing.  There  was, 
if  the  older  definitions  are  to  be  taken  literally,  no  desire 
on  the  part  of  the  advertiser  to  sell  his  commodity.  He 
was  a  philanthropist  pure  and  simple,  spending  hundreds 
of  millions  of  dollars  annually  to  educate  the  public 
concerning  the  various  lines  of  industrial  endeavor. 

The  business  man  is  not  ordinarily  so  generous.  He  is 
spending  his  money  on  advertisements  because  he  is  fully 
convinced  that  they  will  give  him  a  low  selling  cost  and 

^  Richardson,  "  The  Power  of  Advertising,"  pages  19-20. 


4       ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

increase  his  profits.  No  matter  what  his  line  is,  he  is 
trying  to  do  business  and  more  business.  He  is  trying 
to  get  somebody  to  do  something,  and  that  something 
is  the  purchasing  of  a  definite  commodity.  The  com- 
modity may  be  an  actual  article,  such  as  a  package  of 
breakfast  food  or  a  piano ;  it  may  be  services,  as  would 
be  the  case  with  a  boxing  instructor,  a  detective,  or  the 
head  of  a  correspondence  school;  it  may  be  protection 
for  the  individual,  as  in  the  case  of  insurance.  What- 
ever form  the  commodity  takes,  its  purchase  will  directly 
or  indirectly  benefit  the  individual  who  furnishes  the  com- 
modity. The  fact  that  the  advertiser  is  offering  informa- 
tion to  bring  about  action  on  the  part  of  the  public  must 
be  taken  into  account  in  framing  any  definition. 

Bearing  these  facts  in  mind,  cormnercial  advertising 
may  be  defined  as  the  endeavor  of  an  individual  or  of  a 
group  to  persuade  others,  without  personal  solicitation 
and  by  means  of  a  paid  medium,  to  perform  some 
specific  act  which  will  result  in  pecuniary  advantage 
to  the  individual  or  group  which  is  making  the  endeavor. 

The  phrase  '* without  personal  solicitation"  is  inserted 
to  differentiate  advertising  from  salesmanship.  By 
salesmanship  will  be  meant,  throughout  the  book,  the 
actual  personal  relationship  between  the  buyer  and  the 
seller.  The  salesman  tries  by  word  of  mouth  or  by 
manner  to  influence  the  customer  to  buy.  WTienever 
advertising  is  spoken  of,  it  will  indicate  that  the  pro- 
spective buyer  and  seller  are  not  together.  The  sug- 
gestion to  buy  comes  in  an  impersonal  way,  usually  in 
the  form  of  a  written  or  printed  message. 

The  Function  of  Advertising.  —  The  purpose  of  adver- 
tising is  to  bring  trade  which  shall  be  profitable  to  the 
advertiser.  Advertising  has  in  many  instances  sup- 
planted personal  salesmanship,  and  in  other  cases  is 
a  great  aid  to  it.  The  business  man  is  going  to  sell  his 
goods  in  the  most  economical  way  that  he  can ;  and  if 


DEFINITIONS  AND   FUNCTIONS  5 

salesmanship  represented  the  greatest  economy,  that 
is  the  method  he  would  employ.  Since  there  is  such  a 
growing  tendency  to  use  advertising,  either  as  a  sole 
means  or  as  a  means  to  help  salesmanship,  it  must  be 
a  more  efficient  method  per  dollar  of  expenditure.  Few 
definite  data  are  procurable  which  will  prove  this,  but 
several  general  considerations  point  in  that  direction. 

A  salesman  can,  on  the  average,  sell  to  but  one  cus- 
tomer at  a  time,  whereas  an  advertisement  can  influence 
thousands  of  individuals  simultaneously. 

An  advertisement  will  reach  and  possibly  influence 
many  individuals  whom  the  salesman  could  not  reach. 

The  advertisement  may  repeat  its  appeal  time  after 
time  to  the  same  person,  while  the  salesman  must  say 
his  say  and  then  leave. 

The  salesman  is  a  source  of  constant  expense  to  the  com- 
pany, while  the  advertisement  is  paid  for  once  and  for  all. 

The  salesman  is  liable  to  all  the  illnesses  that  are  prev- 
alent in  his  territory,  cannot  work  on  Sundays  and 
holidays,  whereas  the  advertisement  never  gets  sick  and 
can  work  365  days  in  the  year. 

A  few  definite  figures  relative  to  the  efficiency  of 
advertising  are  obtainable  and  will  be  quoted.  J.  G. 
Frederick^  says,  "The  very  best  proof  in  the  land  that 
advertising  decreases  selling  cost  is  contained  in  the 
situation  of  Hart,  Schaffner  &  Marx,  the  famous  cloth- 
ing house,  as  compared  with  other  clothing  houses. 
Hart,  Schaffner  &  Marx  are  authoritatively  reputed  to 
do  an  annual  volume  of  business  of  about  ?i 5,000,000. 
.  .  .  Good  advertising  has  been  their  keynote  all  this 
time ;  and  today  their  salesmen  (who  are  on  salary,  not 
on  commission)  talk  little  else  but  advertising  to  dealers. 
In  magazine  advertising  alone  this  spring  and  last  fall 
Hart,  Schaffner  &  Marx  spent  ^85,000.  This  figure  is 
not  a  guess,  it  is  checked  up  from  the  magazines.  One 
^  Printer's  Ink,  August  4,  1910,  page  3. 


6       ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

hundred  and  twenty-five  thousand  dollars  would  prob- 
ably cover  the  total  advertising  expenditure,  news- 
paper advertising  and  all. 

"  Now  let  us  measure  up  selling  cost.  For  the  sales  de- 
partment expense  (everything  but  advertising),  I  learn 
from  inside  sources,  Hart,  Schaffner  &  Marx  spend  only 
2]/^  to  3  per  cent.  See  how  this  measures  up  beside  other 
clothing  houses : 


Hart,  Schaffner  &  Marx 
B.  Kuppenheimer  &  Co. 
Samuel  W.  Peck  &  Co. 
Alfred  Benjamin .     .     . 


Magazine  Advertis- 
ing 1909-1910 


$85,000 
49,000 
29,000 
24,000 


Selling  Cost 


2H% 
4% 
6% 

7%* 


({ 


Here  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  object  lessons  ever 
tabulated  regarding  the  relation  of  advertising  to  sales 
poKcies.  In  almost  perfect  proportion  to  the  expendi- 
ture for  advertising,  the  selling  cost  has  decreased  and 
the  volume  of  sales  increased.  Those  clothing  manu- 
facturers named  above  are  all  advertisers  —  there  is 
an   endless  number  of   other   clothing   manufacturers 

1  To  determine  just  what  effect  advertising  has  had  upon  the  selling 
cost,  it  is  well  to  reduce  both  columns  of  figures  to  ratios,  for  m  this  way 
the  relations  may  be  seen  at  a  glance. 


Advertising 

Skt.i.tng  Cost 

Hart,  Schaffner  &  Marx    .     .     . 
B.  Kuppenheimer  &  Co.    .    .     . 
Samuel  W.  Peck  &  Co.     .    .    . 
Alfred  Benjamin 

3-54 

2.04 

1. 21 

I.OO 

I.OO 

1.60 
2.40 
2.80 

These  ratios  show  that  the  selling  cost  varies  inversely  as  the  1.2 
root  of  the  amount  spent  for  advertising.  This  figure  is  approximate 
only,  but  throughout  the  book  the  endeavor  will  be  made  to  give  mathe- 
matical expression  to  the  different  relations  found  to  exist. 


DEFINITIONS  AND  FUNCTIONS 


whose  names  are  little  known  to  consumers,  and  whose 
selling  cost  ranges  all  the  way  from  6  to  9  per  cent. 
They  are  getting  neither  the  reduced  cost  of  manu- 
facture which  comes  with  the  larger  volume  of  sales 
nor  the  decreased  seUing  cost  which  comes  with  trade- 
mark and  consumer  advertising." 

Another  sort  of  indication  that  advertising  pays  was 
given  by  an  investigation  conducted  by  the  Chicago 
Tribune.  The  test^  is  described  as  follows.  Four 
questions  were  asked : 

1.  What  are  your  favorite  brands  of  food  and  why 
do  you  buy  them? 

2.  How  was  your  attention  first  called  to  each? 

3.  What  has  your  experience  been  with  each? 

4.  How  much  are  you  influenced  by  the  labels  and 
by  the  known  purity  of  food  products  ? 

RepHes  from  those  who  responded  in  this  contest 
were  classified  into  37  broad  divisions  of  food  products, 
ranging  alphabetically  from  baking  powder  to  vinegar. 
The  total  votes  for  all  brands  were  30,936.  This  does 
not  mean  that  this  was  the  number  of  separate  replies 
received,  but  that  this  was  the  total  number  of  votes 
cast  for  all  brands. 

The  reason  for  purchasing  each  brand  was  assigned 
in  nearly  every  case.  These  reasons  were  classified  in 
three  divisions,  as  follows : 

Influenced  by  retailers,  16,527,  or  55  per  cent  of  the 
total. 

Influenced  by  advertising,  11,372,  or  36  per  cent  of 

the  total. 

Influenced  by  friends,  1,889,  ^^  ^  P^^  ^^^^  ^^  ^^  total.^ 

^Judicious  Advertising,  December,  1913,  page  63. 

2  It  is  fair  to  assume  that  36  per  cent  of  the  friends  and  a  certain 
unknown  percentage  of  the  retailers  were  influenced  by  advertising.  Its 
direct  influence  would  be  36  per  cent,  its  indirect  influence  would  be  an 
unknown  quantity  more,  possibly  enough  to  raise  the  total  to  50  per  cent 
or  above. 


8      ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

Those  food  products  in  which  the  influence  of  adver- 
tising was  most  apparent  are,  in  general,  the  products 
that  are  most  widely  advertised.  These  products, 
ranked  in  the  order  in  which  the  influence  of  advertis- 
ing was  admitted  to  be  the  strongest,  were  as  follows : 

Cocoa  and  chocolate 6i  per  cent 

Cereals         60  per  cent 

Beverages 48  per  cent 

Flavoring  extracts 46  per  cent 

Meat  products 45  per  cent 

Milk  and  baking  powder,  tied 43  per  cent 

Sauces  and  relishes 42  per  cent 

Still  a  different  type  of  evidence  is  presented  by  the 
following  incident,  which  is  related  by  F.  W.  Ellsworth. 
He  says.-i  ''There  is  abundant  evidence  that  bank  ad- 
vertising of  a  general  nature  does  mcrease  deposits. 
Here  is  an  example  which  is  reasonably  conclusive. 
The  city  of  Plainfield,  N.J.,  in  1902,  had  a  population 
of  15,000,  with  three  banks,  whose  combined  deposits 
were  ^2,000,000.  A  new  bank  was  started  whose  policy 
was  radically  different  from  that  of  the  older  banks, 
in  that  it  believed  thoroughly  in  advertising.  Its 
success,  which  was  ahnost  immediate,  compelled  the 
other  banks  to  abandon  their  old  policy  of  silence,  and 
since  1903  all  the  banks  in  Plainfield  have  been  consist- 
ent^ and  continuous  advertisers.  The  population  of 
Plainfield  in  the  ten  years  had  increased  5000,  or  25 
per  cent,  while  the  deposits  in  the  banks  have  increased 
to  over  ^10,000,000,  or  more  than  500  per  cent.  The 
vice-president  of  one  of  the  banks  in  that  city  tells  me 
that  in  his  opinion  'this  is  conclusive  evidence  of  the 
great  value  of  good  bank  publicity. ' 

"A  city  in  southern  Michigan,  in  1902,  had  a  popu- 
lation of  about  10,000,  with  three  banks,  whose  total 
deposits  were  about  ?3,5oo,ooo.    PracticaUy  no  adver- 

*  Judicious  Advertising,  November,  1913,  page  57. 


DEFINITIONS  AND   FUNCTIONS  9 

tising  was  done  by  any  of  these  institutions.  A  new 
bank  was  estabUshed  in  1903,  the  management  of  which 
beUeved  in  advertising,  and  in  less  than  nine  years  the 
new  institution  has  accumulated  deposits  larger  than 
the  combined  deposits  of  the  other  three  banks  ten 
years  ago.  In  the  meantime  the  other  banks  have  been 
forced  to  advertise  more  than  they  did,  and  they  too 
have  grown,  so  that  the  combined  deposits  of  the  four 
banks  are  today  about  ^11,000,000,  a  gain  of  over  200 
per  cent,  although  the  population  of  the  town  increased 
during  the  same  time  less  than  35  per  cent.  The  cashier 
of  one  of  the  banks  says :  'Needless  to  say,  my  opinion 
is  that  advertising  is  a  good  thing,  as  you  observe  that 
this  bank  has  grown  from  a  deposit  account  of  nothing 
to  ^3,700,000  in  eight  and  a  half  years.'  " 

Another  argument  in  favor  of  advertising  is  to  be 
found  in  the  following  chpping.^  "It  is  interesting  to 
analyze  the  failures  which  occurred  during  the  past 
year.  There  were  3280  manufacturing  failures — 250 
more  than  in  1909,  but  500  less  than  in  1907.  The  great- 
est number  of  failures  were  in  clothing  and  millinery 
lines  —  largely  women's  clothes,  which  in  the  finished 
shape  are  less  advertised  than  any  other  large  division 
of  merchandise.  The  industry  suffering  the  next  greatest 
number  of  failures  was  the  lumber  industry  —  another 
unadvertised  class;  and  the  next,  the  millers.  Flour 
advertising  is  done  by  practically  two  —  recently  three 
—  concerns.  Machinery  and  tool  makers,  glass,  earthen- 
ware, and  brickmakers,  and  printers  and  engravers 
suffered  more  heavily  than  any  other  class;  and  all  of 
them  are  practically  unadvertised." 

A  still  different  type  of  argument  is  presented  in  an- 
other clipping  which  shows  the  effect  of  discontinuing 
advertising  after  a  successful  business  has  been  built 
up.    The   article 2 reads   as   follows:    "A    short   time 

*  Printer's  Ink,  January  19,  191 1,  page  31. 

•  Ibid.,  March  9,  1910. 


lo     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

after  the  death  of  Charles  Vogeler,  of  St.  Jacob's  Oil 
fame,  his  widow  called  in  a  banker  to  look  over  affairs. 
The  banker,  representing  ideas  of  a  former  commercial 
epoch,  toiled  microscopically  through  the  books,  and 
was  outraged  at  the  items  spent  for  advertising.  He 
would  mend  that !  See  how  much  money  might  have 
been  saved  if  there  had  been  no  advertising!  He 
figured  the  publicity  expenditures  as  useless  expense, 
and  he  attempted  to  make  the  widow  see  it  that  way. 

"The  widow  had  a  lot  of  faith  left  in  her  husband, 
for  she  herself  had  seen  millions  of  bottles  sent  away  to 
uncounted  buyers.  Yet  there  were  the  awful  figures 
squandered  just  for  space  in  magazines  and  on  bill- 
boards, and,  besides,  wasn't  a  banker  an  all-wise  man 
whom  one  shouldn't  dispute? 

"So  it  happened  that  St.  Jacob's  Oil  came  less  and 
less  frequently  to  the  attention  of  the  public.  As  the 
contracts  ran  out,  they  were  not  renewed  and  before 
long  St.  Jacob's  Oil,  which  had  been  known  to  nearly 
every  man,  woman,  and  child  in  America  —  yes,  and 
the  world— through  the  tremendous  force  of  advertising, 
quietly  effaced  itself  from  American  landscapes  and  from 
the  magazines  and  the  newspapers.  Within  a  year  or 
so  all  advertising  had  practically  ceased. 

"St.  Jacob's  Oil  had  a  splendid  distribution.  It 
could  be  got  anywhere.  The  banker  had  said  it  would 
sell  anyhow,  because  everybody  had  come  to  know  it 
so  well.  But  ...  as  the  advertising  had  ceased  to 
bother  the  expense  columns  of  the  ledgers,  the  demand 
slackened.  Complaints  reached  headquarters  from 
dealers  that  St.  Jacob's  wasn't  going  as  it  had.  And 
so  within  another  two  or  three  years  the  golden  stream 
of  orders  had  shrunk  to  proportions  that  would  have 
driven  its  former  proprietor  frantic.  St.  Jacob's  had 
become  a  back  number." 

The  incidents  which  have  been  quoted  showing  the 


DEFINITIONS  AND  FUNCTIONS 


II 


effect  of  advertising  are,  to  say  the  least,  striking.  They 
are  written  convincingly  and  forcefully.  They  may 
represent  the  exact  and  absolute  truth.  But,  before 
accepting  them  blindly,  two  possibiUties  must  be  con- 
sidered. 

In  the  first  place,  six  isolated  instances,  even  though 
they  agree  perfectly,  will  never  warrant  the  postulation 
of  a  general  law.  A  tendency  may  be  indicated,  and  the 
piling  up  of  additional  cases  will  strengthen  the  tendency. 

In  the  second  place,  it  must  be  remembered  that  all 
of  the  incidents  quoted  were  taken  from  technical  ad- 
vertising magazines,  the  attitude  of  which  is  frankly 
favorable  to  advertising.  Not  that  the  facts  contained 
in  such  magazines  are  not  absolutely  trustworthy,  but 
that  facts  favorable  to  advertising  are  much  more  likely 
to  find  a  resting  place  on  their  pages  than  those  which 
are  unfavorable. 

In  view  of  these  considerations,  it  will  be  worth  while 
to  give  some  actual  figures  relative  to  the  efficiency  of 
advertisements.  The  figures  are  quoted  from  Shryer 
and  deal  with  mail  order  propositions,  which  possibly 
show  somewhat  different  tendencies  from  the  adver- 
tisements of  more  general  commodities.  Practically 
the  only  advertising  from  which  exact  records  can  be 
obtained,  however,  is  of  the  mail  order  variety.  The 
following  figures,  then,  must  be  taken  as  applying  simply 
to  the  mail  order  sort.  While  they  may  apply  with 
equal  force  to  the  other  varieties,  there  is  no  way  of 
being  sure  of  it. 

Shryer^  says  as  follows:  —  "Although  I  am  what 
many  would  call  a  mail  order  advertiser,  I  am  more 
interested  in  the  general  principles  that  underlie  all 
advertising  than  I  am  in  a  discussion  of  particular  mail 
order  procedure.  My  main  concern  is  to  attempt  an 
exposition  of  several  general  principles  which  will  be 

*  Advertising  and  Selling,  February,  19 13,  page  24. 


12     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

found  as  practical  for  the  general  advertiser  as  for  any 
other. 

"An  illustration  of  mail  order  reasoning  that  has  a 
highly  suggestive  value  for  any  advertiser  occurs  to  me 
in  connection  with  the  point  just  made  regarding  the 
small  percentage  of  possible  prospects.  It  may  serve 
to  throw  a  little  light  on  the  great  waste  inseparable  from 
any  campaign.  .  .  . 

"The  average  cost  for  inquiries  may  range  from  25 
cents  to  $1,  Above  $1  apiece,  inqumes  are  unusually 
high.  Below  25  cents  each,  inquiries  are  very  low. 
Ten  cents  apiece  for  inquiries  may  be  consisdered  as 
bed  rock.  An  average  percentage  of  sales  is  somewhere 
between  10  per  cent  and  15  per  cent.  The  Kalamazoo 
stove  m  Its  palmy  days  claimed  to  sell  one  out  of  three. 
The  usual  average  is  nearer  10  per  cent  than  even  2K 
per  cent. 

"Let  us  assume  a  circulation  of  100,000  at  ?ioo 
a  page  — an  honest  rate.  Let  us  use  a  page  of  the 
strongest  copy,  yielding  inquiries  at  10  cents.  Let 
us  assume  a  selling  average  of  20  per  cent,  just  double 
the  ordinary.  We  therefore  secure  1000  inquiries. 
We  therefore  sell  200  out  of  the  100,000,  or  one  fifth 
of  one  per  cent. 

"In  assuming  these  percentages  I  have  taken  an 
absurdly  high  sales  percentage  and  a  ridiculously  low 
selKng  cost.  A  mail  order  man,  with  a  good  article, 
buying  inquiries  at  10  cents  and  selUng  one  out  of  five 
IS  the  possessor  of  a  proposition  rich  beyond  the  dreams 
of  mail  order  avarice.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  few 
develop  any  such  gold  mines.  Most  of  us  are  content  to 
pay  ^i  apiece  for  inquiries  and  sell  ten  per  cent  of  them. 
This  means  selling  just  ten  out  of  a  circulation  of  100,000. 

"Under  our  most  favorable  assumption,  we  are  buying 
99,800  waste.  Under  the  average  actual  conditions  we 
are  buying  99,990. 


i 


/ 


I 


DEFINITIONS  AND  FUNCTIONS 


13 


"These  figures  are  assumed  figures,  but  they  repre- 
sent the  outside  limits  of  actual  average  results.  Wliat- 
ever  your  proposition,  there  is  an  absolute  limit  to  the 
number  of  persons  out  of  every  100,000  circulation  that 
you  can  move  to  purchase  through  the  most  skillful 
copy.  As  soon  as  you  realize  this  and  determine  just 
how  many  you  are  able  to  sell  under  the  most  favorable 
circumstances,  you  begin  to  appreciate  the  wisdom  of 
thoughtful  analysis." 

Turning  now  to  the  results  of  advertising  campaigns 
which  have  been  carried  on,  further  data  are  obtained. 
The  results  of  a  subscription  campaign  carried  on  by 
a  popular  magazine  costing  ^i  per  year,  are  given.^ 
Both  magazines  and  newspapers  were  employed  as 
mediums.  Twenty-one  insertions  in  magazines  and 
forty-four  in  newspapers,  costing  a  total  of  ^3,147.94, 
resulted  in  2855  subscribers  at  ^i  each.  The  loss  for 
this  campaign  was  ^292.94. 

The  results  of  another  campaign  to  sell  a  combination 
of  merchandise  costing  slightly  less  than  ^30,  is  given 
below.  Advertisements  inserted  in  18  magazines  gave 
the  following  results :  ^ 


Cost  of  space     .... 
Number  of  inquiries 
Cost  per  inquiry     .     .     , 
Per  cent  orders  to  inquiries 
Orders 


^  7,S33-02 
2o,93S- 

0-3S 
6.00 

1,270 


Shryer  says  i^  "In  order  to  make  a  profit,  it  was  neces- 
sary to  secure  inquiries  at  40  cents  each,  and  to  develop 
into  orders  at  least  6  per  cent  of  the  inquiries  at  this 
cost.  It  may  be  seen  at  a  glance  how  few  of  the  publi- 
cations tested  were  profitable.  In  some  cases  inquiries 
were  secured  at  an  average  cost  of  less  than  40  cents, 

1  Shyrer,  "Analytical  Advertising,"  page  82  ff. 
^Ibid.,  page  137  flf. 
•  Ibid.,  page  146. 


I- 


I 


14     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

when  a  somewhat  lower  percentage  of  orders  would 
yield  a  profit.  .  .  .  The  few  profitable  mediums  carried 
the  whole  campaign." 

The  same  campaign  as  carried  on  in  the  46  news- 
papers shows  the  following  returns : 

Cost  of  space $3420.08 

Inquiries 5678. 

Cost  i)er  inquiry .60 

Per  cent  of  sales  to  inquiries 4.50 

Sales 258, 

Two  other  sets  of  figures  will  be  quoted  from  Shryer.^ 
In  these  he  gives  summarized  tables  of  the  returns  from 
his  own  advertising  of  the  American  Collection  Service. 
The  results  are  given  for  different  sizes  of  advertisements : 

Size  or  Ad.  Inquiries  per  Insertion 

Classified        18.5 

7  line  display 10.9 

16  line  display 29.0 

20  line 10.6 

36  line  blind 60.0 

56  line  display 28.0 

Half  page 41.0 

Full  page 62.3 

The  following  figures  are  derived  from  advertisements 
nm  in  System  magazine. 

Size  or  Ao.  Inquiries  per  Insertkhi 

Classified 23 

Quarter  page       68 

Half  page 109 

Full  page 154 

Two  page 69 

Three  page 283 

If  100,000  is  assumed  to  be  the  average  circulation 
of  the  magazines  listed  in  Shryer's  book,  it  is  seen  that 
the  average  number  of  inquiries  per  insertion  is  below 
the  10  per  cent  which  he  mentioned  as  the  average. 

'  Shryer,  "Analytical  Advertising,"  pages  180  and  190. 


DEFINITIONS  AND  FUNCTIONS 


15 


The  whole  argument  to  date  indicates  that  advertis- 
ing may  pay,  but  does  not  necessarily  do  so.  Another 
table,  taken  from  Scott,^  has  some  bearing  on  the  ef- 
ficiency of  advertising.  He  says:  "Data  were  secured 
from  all  firms  located  west  of  Buffalo  and  advertising 
in  the  Ladies^  Home  Journal  for  a  period  of  eight  years. 
All  firms  were  grouped  together  which  had  appeared 
in  this  magazine  but  one  of  these  years,  all  which  had 
appeared  two  of  the  years,  all  which  had  appeared  three 
of  the  years,  etc.,  up  to  and  including  all  of  the  firms 
which  had  appeared  the  eight  years  under  consideration. 
After  a  careful  analysis  had  been  made,  the  following 
significant  results  were  secured : 


Number  of  Years  the  Firms 
continued  to  advertise 

1  year 

2  years 

3  years 

4  years 

5  years 

6  years 

7  years 

8  years 


Average  Number  of  Lines 
USED  Annually  by  Each  Firm 

56  lines 
116  lines 
168  lines 
194  lines 
192  lines 
262  lines 
218  lines 
600  lines 


"This  would  seem  to  indicate  that  in  general  if  a  firm 
uses  56  lines  annually  in  the  Ladies'  Home  Journal,  the 
results  will  be  so  unsatisfactory  that  it  will  not  try  it 
again.  If  it  uses  1 1 6  lines  annually,  it  will  be  encouraged 
to  attempt  it  the  second  year,  but  will  then  drop  out. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  it  uses  600  lines  annually,  the 
results  will  be  so  satisfactory  that  it  will  contmue  to  use 
the  same  magazine  indefinitely. 

"There  were  but  1,247  firms  included  in  the  data 
presented  above.  Other  data  were  secured  from  the 
entire  number  of  firms  advertising  in  the  Ladies'  Home 
Journal,  the  Delineator,  Harper's,  and  Scrihner's  for 
certain  periods,  but  inasmuch  as  the  data  from  all  these 

» W.  D.  Scott,  "The  Psychology  of  Advertising,"  page  179. 


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I 


f 


f 


i6     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

merely  confirm  those  presented  above  they  are  not  added 
here." 

It  can  scarcely  be  said  that  the  figures  given  by  Scott 
are  entirely  fair  to  advertising  in  general.  But  one 
medium  is  considered  in  each  case,  and  the  cautious 
advertiser  who  wishes  to  try  out  a  medium  before  risking 
too  much  would  be  very  likely  to  stop  if  small  insertions 
did  not  pull  well  as  compared  with  similar  advertisements 
in  other  mediums.  Tlien,  too,  it  sometimes  happens 
that  the  conmiodity  is  necessarily  short-lived  and  the 
advertising,  no  matter  how  successful,  would  soon  stop. 

The  general  conclusions  which  we  are  forced  to  accept 
by  these  considerations  is  that  advertising  will  pay  if  it 
is  done  correctly.  The  successful  advertiser  must,  how- 
ever, be  alive  to  a  very  great  number  of  possibilities  in 
his  complex  situation.  He  must  keep  track  of  so  many 
different  things  that  it  is  bewildering  to  the  layman.  In 
addition  to  studying  the  market  and  crop  conditions, 
the  activities  of  competitors,  he  must  be  definitely 
aware  of  at  least  two  things  concerning  his  own  adver- 
tising. He  may  be  able  to  keep  accurate  records  show- 
ing the  returns  from  the  different  mediums,  eliminating 
those  which  prove  to  be  unprofitable,  and  depending 
for  his  business  upon  those  which  bring  in  sufficient 
returns.  Sometimes,  obviously,  this  is  impossible. 
In  cases  where  the  commodity  is  procurable  at  retail 
stores,  he  has  no  way  of  determining  the  exact  effect  of 
his  campaign.  About  the  only  thing  he  can  do  under 
the  drciunstances  is  to  determine  whether  the  volume 
of  business  waxes  and  wanes  as  the  volume  of  adver- 
tising m  certain  sections  increases  and  diminishes.  This 
is,  at  best,  an  inaccurate  method  of  determining  results. 
However,  it  appears  from  personal  letters  received  from 
advertising  men  that  very  few  of  them  know  anything 
at  all  about  the  effectiveness  of  their  advertising. 

If  the  advertiser  is  unable  to  check  his  returns  accu- 


DEFINITIONS  AND  FUNCTIONS 


17 


rately,  a  second  possibility  is  for  him  to  improve  the 
quality  and  kind  of  his  advertising  to  such  an  extent 
that  it  must  bring  in  more  business.  The  second  or 
constructive  improvement  can  be  made  by  knowing  and 
applying  the  principles  of  the  various  sciences  which  are 
related  to  advertising. 

Psychology  is  one  of  these  sciences,  and  the  rest  of  the 
book  will  deal  very  largely  with  the  principles  of  atten- 
tion, memory,  and  action  or  response.  A  knowledge  of 
these  laws,  if  applied  intelligently,  ought  to  enable  the 
advertiser  to  construct  his  copy  and  plan  his  campaign 
so  that  it  will  secure  better  attention,  be  remembered 
longer,  and  induce  action  in  a  greater  percentage  of 
persons,  who  will,  on  the  average,  act  more  promptly 
and  energetically  than  they  would  in  response  to  less 
scientific  copy. 


. 


€' 


i 


CHAPTER  n 

Advertising  and  Psychology 

As  was  pointed  out  in  the  last  chapter,  advertising 
is  related  to  a  considerable  number  of  the  sciences.  As 
a  form  of  business,  it  is  concerned  with  the  laws  and 
applications  of  economics.  Since  advertisements  are 
so  frequently  attractive  in  appearance,  a  knowledge  of 
the  laws  of  aesthetics  is  important.  Likewise,  informa- 
tion concerning  the  principles  of  rhetoric,  English,  and 
grammar  is  fundamental,  for  so  many  of  the  advertise- 
ments which  appear  depend  for  their  efficiency  upon  a 
printed  appeal.  Other  sorts  of  information,  for  which 
no  scientific  names  have  developed,  are  likewise  impor- 
tant —  concerning  mediums,  circulation,  prices,  make- 
up, and  the  like.  The  list  does  not  pretend  to  be  ex- 
haustive, but  is  given  simply  to  indicate  the  wide  range 
of  information  necessary  to  the  practical  advertiser. 

EquaUy  important  is  a  knowledge  of  human  nature. 
One  phase  of  the  study  of  human  nature  is  called  psy- 
chology. The  exact  meaning  of  the  term  will  be  given 
at  a  later  time.  It  is  sufficiently  well  known,  however, 
to  require  no  elaborate  explanation. 

The  advertising  man  has  managed  to  get  along  for 
several  thousand  years  without  the  help  of  psychology. 
He  undoubtedly  could  exist  for  as  many  more  years 
without  the  assistance  of  that  science,  but  the  result 
would  be  the  waste  of  his  materials,  in  this  case  money, 
which  would  make  him  inefficient.  In  a  similar  manner, 
practical  building  took  place  before  much  of  anything 

x8 


ADVERTISING  AND  PSYCHOLOGY 


19 


was  known  about  the  laws  of  mechanics  and  physics. 
When  these  sciences  had  reached  a  sufficient  develop- 
ment, practical  applications  were  made  of  the  laws 
which  they  had  determined  and  the  whole  building  in- 
dustry was  revolutionized.  In  much  the  same  way, 
shipbuilding,  transportation,  and  the  like,  have  been 
tremendously  improved  by  the  application  of  the  laws 
which  have  been  worked  out  through  the  sciences  which 
are  related  to  the  industries.  The  opinion  may  be 
ventured  that  it  is  possible  to  measure  the  development 
of  any  industry  by  the  number  of  scientific  laws  which 
are  applied  by  it.  In  Hke  manner,  the  development  of 
the  science  may  be  determined  by  the  use  which  the 
industries  make  of  its  laws.  The  industry  is,  however, 
more  dependent  upon  the  science  than  the  science  is 
upon  the  industry.  Formal  mathematics  could  exist 
without  barter,  trade,  and  business,  but  business  could 
not  exist  without  the  application  of  mathematical  laws. 
The  real  gain  which  results  from  the  appKcation  of 
scientific  laws  to  the  various  industries  is  a  gain  in 
efficiency.  It  eliminates  waste  of  materials  and  of 
time. 

'  The  question  now  arises.  What  can  psychology  con- 
tribute to  advertising?  How  can  a  knowledge  of  the 
principles  and  laws  of  psychology  help  the  advertising 
man?  It  has  been  indicated  that  adverdsements  give 
information  and  try  to  bring  about  action  as  a  result  of 
the  information. 

Psychology  has  been  defined  at  different  times  as  the 
science  of  consciousness ;  the  science  of  the  mind ;  and 
the  science  of  behavior.  Whatever  definition  is  used, 
psychology  deals  with  the  facts  of  the  mental  Hfe  — 
attention,  sensation,  perception,  memory,  reasoning, 
feelings,  emotions  —  and  also  with  the  facts  of  the  be- 
havior of  the  individual. 

Psychology  should  be  able  to  help  the  advertising 


20     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

man  in  two  ways.     In  the  first  place,  it  should  aid  him 
to  understand  hmiself,  his  strong  points  and  his  limita- 
tions. ^  The  advertising  man  is  a  mental  worker.     His 
mmd  IS  the  mstrument  which  he  uses  in  his  work  (  He 
would  have  Uttle  use  for  a  carpenter  who  planed  boards 
with  a  saw,  pried  out  nails  with  a  chisel,  and  drove  them 
with  a  maUet.    He  insists  that  the  workmen  he  employs 
shall  be  able  to  use  the  tools  of  their  trade,  and  use  them 
not  only  correctly,  but  to  the  best  advantage.^  Since 
the  advertiser  is  a  mental  worker,  he  should  SSroughly 
understand  his  mental  tool,  knowing  what  it  can  do  and 
what  It  IS  mcapable  of  doing.    A  thorough  acquaint- 
ance with  the  tool  wiU  make  him  much  more  efficient 
^  In  the  second  place,  psychology  should  help  him  by 
giving  hmi  the  various  laws  of  mental  processes :  how 
to  get  and  hold  the  attention  of  the  reader,  how  to 
arrange  the  advertisement  so  that  it  may  be  easily  read  • 
how  to  make  the  commodity  remembered  by  those  who 
read  the  advertisement ;  under  what  circumstances  to 
use    reason  why"  copy  and  the  kind  of  argument  which 
is  most  hkely  to  appeal ;  what  are  the  desirable  emotions 
to  arouse  and  how  to  arouse  them ;  and  finally,  most 
important  of  aU,  how  to  bring  about  the  desired  action 
on  the  part  of  the  reader. 

Before  turning  to  a  detailed  discussion  of  these  special 
processes,  however,  it  will  be  worth  while  to  show  in  a 
general  way  how  mind  has  originated  and  developed 
and  how  the  -advertising"  consciousness  has  arisen. 
10  do  this,  a  bnef  discussion  of  the  functional  or  evolu- 
tionary standpoint  m  psychology  will  be  necessary. 

Functional  psychology  affirms  that  we  did  not  always 
have  mmds,  but  developed  them  as  the  occasion  aroi. 
Consaousness,  attention,  and  consequently  mind  ap- 
pear  only  in  the  presence  of  novel  and  unusual  situations. 
1  his  is  perfectly  famiKar  from  our  daily  life.  In  walking 
the  process  is  habitual,  hence  uncontrolled  by  conscious- 


ADVERTISING  AND  PSYCHOLOGY 


21 


hshed  habit  cannot  take  care  of.  Should  we  stumble 
tL^^  necessary  to  shorten  or  lengthen  our  step  to 
keep  pace  ,yith  a  companion,  attention  is  directed  to 

acd^a^tvtfl^l!  'u^^K-  Consciousness  directs  the 
activity  imtil  the  old  habit  can  reassert  itself  or  a  new 
habit  be  formed.  It  is  by  just  such  a  process  tl^t  w^ 
must  trace  the  development  of  mind 

t>,f i,^^  "^^  ^f^"^  ^^^  development  of  consciousness  in 
the  human  mfant,  it  wiU  be  possible  to  apply  the  sarn^ 
general  rules  to  the  development  of  consciousness  in  the 
human  race.  "Obviously  in  the  case  of  the  Sfan? 
there  can  be  at  the  outset  no  acquired  habits,  and  it 
seems  reasonable,  therefore,  to  assume  that  cinscioiS 
activities  emerge  at  the  poiot  where  the  reflex  acts  are 

iTations  '^"^''  '°  "'""'  '^'  °^^^  °^  the  particular 
"Evidently  the  equipment  of  co6rdinations  with 
which  we  have  found  the  newborn  infant  supphed  can- 
not carry  him  very  far  in  his  adjustment  to  the  complex 
surromidings  amid  which  he  finds  himself  placed 
If  the  reflexes  and  automatic  acts  were  wholly  competent 
to  steer  the  organism  throughout  its  coursef  there  is  no 
reason  to  suppose  that  consciousness  would  ever  put  in 
an  appearance." '  ^ 

To  explain  the  beginnings  of  mind  in  the  race,  the 
same  general  assumption  is  made.  Where  the  inherited 
movements  the  mstincts  and  the  reflexes,  are  incapable 
of  handhng  the  situation,  consciousness  appears.  Granted 
tnat  It  may  be  a  very  vague  sort  of  consciousness,  it  is 
still  enough  to  make  the  animal  perform  some  move- 
ment, new  either  in  combination  or  in  direction.  If  the 
new  movement  proves  to  be  adequate  to  meet  the  situa- 
tion It  becomes  a  habit.  The  habit  will  tend  to  persist 
untU  some  other  chance  movement  proves  to  be  more 

« AngeU,  "Psychology,"  page  64. 


I 


m 


I 


"V 


33     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

* 

satisfactory  in  dealing  with  the  situation,  or  until  a 
complexity  occurs  which  requires  a  different  response. 

Similarly,  a  group  of  persons  dwelling  together  will 
go  along  in  the  familiar  way  until  some  crisis,  climatic 
in  nature,  dealing  with  the  food  supply,  the  actions  of 
other  groups,  the  unusual  phenomena  of  nature,  etc., 
appears,  to  meet  which  there  is  no  group  habit  or  cus- 
tom. Such  conditions  are  fairly  prevalent  among  the 
more  primitive  tribes  of  peoples.  Not  that  they  do  not 
occur  among  the  more  civilized  groups  as  well ;  but  the 
conditions  are  so  much  simpler  with  the  more  primitive 
peoples,  that  their  study  is  less  difficult. 

When  any  new  situation  confronts  the  group,  some 
new  adjustment,  or  habit,  is  necessary.  This  is  usually 
hit  upon  by  a  trial  and  error  method.  Various  activities 
are  tried  until  one  which  is  adequate  is  chanced  upon. 
This,  then,  becomes  a  custom  of  the  tribe,  and  is  par- 
ticularly binding  upon  the  members  of  the  tribe.  In 
this  manner,  a  large  number  of  tribal  habits  or  customs 
are  developed  which  become  the  standards  of  action  of 
the  group. 

The  activities  of  our  primitive  ancestors  were  largely 
if  not  entirely  practical.  The  only  reason  for  acting 
at  all  was  to  satisfy  some  need.  Wlien  a  need  was  felt, 
action  resulted  for  the  satisfaction  of  that  need.  The 
fundamental  needs  of  the  group  were  relatively  simple, 
being  based  very  largely  upon  the  seeking  of  food  and 
the  avoiding  of  danger.  But  these  needs  could  not  be 
satisfied  so  easily.  Food  meant  game,  fruit,  or  cereals. 
The  procuring  of  game  gave  rise  to  secondary  needs, 
such  as  weapons,  traps,  and  the  like.  Each  of  these 
secondary  needs,  in  turn,  gave  rise  to  other  needs,  so 
that  a  considerable  degree  of  complexity  of  activity 
and  adjustment  became  necessary  before  even  the 
relatively  simple  needs  could  be  satisfied. 

But  the  kinds  of  game,  the  sorts  of  danger  which  must 


ADVERTISING  AND  PSYCHOLOGY 


23 


O 


f 


be  avoided  differ  with  different  localities.  The  habit 
which  will  be  developed  depends  upon  the  environment. 
All  must  eat,  but  the  particular  things  they  will  eat 
vary  with  the  different  localities,  for  the  same  kinds  of 
game  and  the  same  kinds  of  fruit  and  vegetables  are  not 
to  be  found  everywhere. 

The  group  of  habits  and  customs  which  an  individual 
in  such  a  group  forms  in  order  to  satisfy  his  needs  may 
be  termed  his  occupation.  Our  next  step  is  to  show 
that  the  occupation  of  the  individual  or  of  the  group 
determines  very  largely  the  type  of  mind.  We  have 
asserted  that  mind  or  consciousness  must  develop  in 
terms  of  the  environment.  Since  all  knowledge  is  re- 
ceived through  the  senses,  only  those  things  which  the 
sense  organs  are  exposed  to  can  become  a  part  of  knowl- 
edge. The  only  objects  which  can  stimulate  the  sense 
organs  are  the  things  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  sense 
organs.  Consequently,  the  things  which  one  knows 
about  must  be  the  things  which  he  can  experience.  In 
other  words,  mind  develops  in  terms  of  the  environment. 

Any  habit,  however,  represents  but  one  way  of  per- 
ceiving the  environment.  So,  if  we  have  but  one  habit 
or  one  custom  by  means  of  which  to  meet  any  situation, 
we  are  not  receiving  all  the  possible  benefits  of  the  en- 
vironment. ^  The  occupation  is  determined  by  the  set 
of  habits  which  we  have  formed,  so  it  becomes  necessary 
to^  limit  the  above  statement  to  mean  that  mind  is 
primarily  developed  in  terms  of  the  occupation.  It  is 
also  in  terms  of  occupation  that  most  of  our  standards 
are  developed.  By  a  comparison  of  the  result  of  our 
work  with  that  of  other  individuals,  we  arrive  at  a  knowl- 
edge of  success  or  failure.  Because  the  only  objects 
we  can  know  about  are  found  in  the  enviromtient,  our 
knowledge  of^  the  things  about  us  determines  the  desire 
process.  It  is  because  of  the  occupational  knowledge 
which  we  have  that  certain  things  stand  out  as  im- 


i< 


U-^Ov^ 


I 


24     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

portant  and  others  are  relegated  to  the  background. 
"So  fundamental  and  pervasive  is  the  group  of  occu- 
pational activities  that  it  affords  the  scheme  or  pattern 
of  the  structural  organization  of  mental  traits."  ^      ^ 

We  can  now  see  why  an  agricultural  group  should 
differ  from  a  hunting  group  in  customs,  language,  and 
thought.  We  can  see  why  the  agriculturist  should 
think  in  terms  of  plow  animals  and  cereals ;  why  the 
hunter  should  conceive  his  world  as  made  up  of  weapons, 
dogs,  and  wild  animals;  and  why  the  hunter  became 
skillful,  sly,  and  rapid  of  motion ;  why  the  farmer  grew 
stolid,  patient,  and  deliberate  of  movement. 

Granting  that  consciousness  has  developed  in  terms 
of  those  objects  in  the  environment  which  are  important 
for  satisfying  the  needs  of  the  individual  and  the  group, 
it  will  be  important  to  trace,  as  far  as  possible,  the 
development  of  the  advertising  consciousness.  We  shall 
proceed  on  the  assumption  that  the  basic  cause  of  all 
activity  is  the  satisfaction  of  some  need.  Sometimes 
the  need  is  conscious  and  sometimes  unconscious. 
Where  we  are  dealing  with  the  higher  forms  of  conduct 
or  action,  the  cause  is  always  a  felt  need.  From  this 
standpoint,  advertisements  are  simply  ways  either  of  in- 
forming us  of  how  we  can  satisfy  existing  needs,  or  of 
telling  us  about  needs  which  we  had  not  previously 
realized. 

(k>ing  back  as  far  as  we  can  in  the  early  history  of  the 
human  race,  we  do  not  find  any  advertising  as  the  term 
is  used  in  this  book.  There  are  at  least  two  reasons  to 
account  for  this.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  doubtful  if 
advertising  can  exist  where  there  is  no  private  owner- 
ship. Where  there  is  no  personal  property,  there  can 
be  no  advertising,  for  there  can  be  no  pecuniary  profit 
involved  in  any  transaction.  And  there  is  good  reason 
to  believe  that  in  certain  primitive  conditions,  group 

>  Dewey,  "Interpretation  of  the  Savage  Mind,"  Psy.  Reo.,  9,  page  220. 


n 


V 


\' 


ADVERTISING  AND  PSYCHOLOGY 

/ 


25 


ownership  was  the  rule.  «  Secondly,  in  the  earliest  com- 
munities, there  was  little  if  any  specialization  of  function 
among  the  different  members.  The  tasks  of  the  men 
and  of  the  women  were  necessarily  different,  but  there 
was  little  specialization  among  the  men  and  little  among 
the  women.  Each  family  made  the  articles  of  clothing, 
the  shelters,  the  weapons,  and  procured  the  food  neces- 
sary for  its  maintenance.  No  one  man  or  woman  made 
all  the  foot  covering  that  was  used  by  the  tribe,  nor  did 
another  make  all  of  the  clothes,  and  a  third  all  of  the 
weapons.  Each  family,  among  the  primitive  peoples 
at  least,  was  complete  in  itself,  carrying  on  those  activi- 
ties which  were  necessary  for  self-preservation. 

When  the  condition  arose  in  which  each  family  and 
each  tribe  was  not  complete  in  itself,  when  other  tribes 
or  families,  living  in  a  different  environment,  possessed 
articles  which  the  first  tribe  did  not  possess,  but  which 
for  any  reason  it  would  have  liked  to  possess,  there 
developed  the  process  of  barter  or  trade.  The  tribe 
had  formed  habits  of  reacting  to  the  familiar  objects  in 
its  environment.  For  the  new  object,  obtained  through 
barter,  no  habitual  mode  of  reaction  had  been  developed, 
so  it  was  necessary  to  work  out  a  new  one.  The  new 
habit  might  be  an  imitation  of  the  one  employed  by  the 
original  possessors  of  the  article,  or  it  might  be  espe- 
cially created.  Should  the  new  habit  prove  to  be  very 
successful  from  the  standpoint  of  satisfying  some  need 
not  previously  realized,  it  in  turn  became  a  group  habit 
and  resulted  in  the  demand  for  the  article.  In  some 
such  way  as  this,  barter  developed  to  satisfy  the  needs 
of  the  group  by  bringing  in  articles  which  could  not  be 
found  in  the  environment.  It  is  in  situations  like  this 
that  one  form  of  advertising  arose. 

Another  situation  which  called  out  advertising  ap- 
peared with  the  development  of  the  specialization  of 
function.  'When,  by  accident,  one  individual  stumbled 


I 


) 


I 


I 


26     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

upon  a  new  and  better  way  of  tanning  leather,  or  de- 
veloped an  especial  efficiency  in  some  other  part  of  the 
task,  that  individual  in  time  became  the  foot-wear 
maker  of  the  tribe.  When  another  developed  an  es- 
pecial aptitude  for  making  bows  and  arrows,  that  be- 
came his  occupation,  freeing  others  from  that  task  and 
allowing  them  to  devote  their  time  to  other  pursuits  for 
which  they  were  better  adapted.  In  this  way,  because 
of  special  knowledge  or  on  account  of  special  physical 
characteristics,  certain  tasks  were  given  over  to  certain 
individuals.  The  need  for  footwear  and  for  weapons 
still  persisted,  but  the  exact  knowledge  of  how  to 
satisfy  that  particular  need  was  the  equipment  of  the  few. 
Others  had  to  turn  to  them  for  the  satisfaction  of  those 
needs.  In  the  small  group,  it  was  easy  to  keep  track 
of  the  specialists  in  any  line.  But  as  the  groups  grew 
larger,  it  became  impossible  for  any  one  to  know  every- 
body else.  In  this  condition,  it  was  necessary  to  an- 
nounce that  a  certain  individual  was  the  maker  of  such 
and  such  goods.  The  other  individuals  in  the  group, 
because  of  the  need  which  they  felt,  would  get  the 
articles  from  him,  in  turn  supplying  him  with  some 
other  form  of  commodity  which  satisfied  one  of  his 
needs.  In  some  such  way  as  this,  the  need  for  adver- 
tising arose.  It  consisted  at  first  in  merely  stating  a 
fact. 

With  the  appearance  of  competition,  however,  more 
than  simple  publicity  was  necessary.  When  there  were 
several  possible  ways  of  satisfying  the  same  need,  there 
developed  also  a  need  for  real  advertising.  It  became 
necessary  to  give  reasons  for  obtaining  the  goods  from 
one  individual  rather  than  from  some  other.  If  one 
commodity  proved  to  be  superior  to  another  for  any 
purpose,  the  crowd  used  that  commodity.  If  the  as- 
sertion of  superiority  was  included  in  the  announce- 
ment, the  announcement  would  pull  more  trade.     In 


ADVERTISING  AND   PSYCHOLOGY 


27 


this  way  a  new  standard  was  set  which  other  makers  of 
the  same  commodity  must  come  up  to  or  go  out  of 
business.  Soon  a  competitor  had  raised  the  quality  of 
the  goods  to  another  level  and  so  set  a  higher  standard, 
which  the  other  makers  must  in  turn  equal  in  order  to 
survive  in  business. 

The  announcement  of  the  different  goods  to  satisfy  the 
different  needs  of  the  people  became,  then,  a  part  of 
the  environment  of  the  people.  The  fundamental 
needs  were  still  there  and  demanded  satisfaction.  The 
various  ways  of  obtaining  satisfaction  of  the  needs  be- 
came a  part  of  the  mental  equipment  of  the  members 
of  the  group. 

Soon  a  condition  arose,  however,  in  which  the  adver- 
tiser went  ahead  of  the  group.  He  developed  ways  of 
satisfying  needs  which  up  to  that  time  had  not  existed. 
His  problem,  then,  was  to  implant  the  feeling  of  need  in 
the  consciousness  of  the  group.  This  could  only  be 
done  through  education.  Oftentimes  the  education 
was  successful,  sometimes  it  was  a  failure.  Be  that 
as  it  may,  the  standards  of  cleanliness,  of  sanitation,  of 
health,  have  been  advanced  generations  before  their 
time  by  the  educational  campaigns  which  have  been 
carried  on  by  the  national  advertisers. 


It 


'm 


CHAPTER  III 


Advertising  as  a  Part  of  the  Environment 


In  the  last  chapter,  it  was  shown  how  advertisements 
have  become  a  part  of  the  environment  in  which  we 
live.  The  purpose  of  the  present  chapter  is  to  study 
the  advertising  environment  somewhat  more  in  detail. 
This  environment  may  for  purposes  of  convenience  be 
split  up  into  two  parts  —  the  physical  and  the  mental. 

The  discussion  of  the  first  leads  to  an  answer  to  the 
question,  Where  in  the  physical  world  are  we  in  the 
habit  of  looking  for  information  relative  to  the  different 
ways  of  satisfying  our  needs?  Put  in  another  way  it 
asks,  How  does  the  one  who  has  a  commodity  to  sell 
inform  the  public  of  the  fact  and  try  to  obtain  a  re- 
sponse from  them  ? 

Obviously,  the  advertiser  is  dependent  upon  the 
various  methods  which  are  in  vogue  at  any  time  for  the 
dissemination  of  information.  Before  printing  was 
invented,  communication  between  individuals  was  very 
largely  an  oral  process.  This  meant  that  information 
was  very  largely  conveyed  by  word  of  mouth.  Criers, 
heralds,  and  the  like  were  frequently  employed  to  read 
or  recite  notices.  In  course  of  time,  the  town  crier  be- 
came an  official,  who,  when  he  had  information  to  give 
out,  called  the  people  together  and  delivered  his  mes- 
sages. Advertising  appeals  were  frequently  among 
his  utterances. 

Another  method  in  use  in  the  early  days  of  adver- 
tising was  the  posting  of  a  written  notice  in  a  conspicu- 

a8 


ADVERTISING  AND  ENVIRONMENT 


29 


ous  position  in  a  place  where  large  numbers  of  people 
were  in  the  habit  of  congregating.  In  ancient  Rome  the 
public  bath  was  a  favorite  place;  in  the  modem  small 
town,  the  post-office  is  often  used  for  the  same  purpose. 

In  England,  before  the  masses  had  learned  to  read, 
signs,  constructed  in  the  nature  of  a  rebus,  were  often 
employed.  Pictures  of  the  finished  product  were 
frequently  adopted.  For  example,  a  sign  containing 
the  picture  of  a  boot  would  be  used  by  a  bootmaker, 
etc.  The  survival  of  these  tendencies  can  still  be  seen 
in  many  of  the  modem  signs.  —  The  barber  pole  is  a 
striking  example. 

After  the  invention  of  printing,  with  its  necessary 
corollary,  increased  reading  by  the  masses,  the  use  of 
printed  advertisements  gradually  developed,  until,  at 
the  present  time,  the  custom  has  assumed  tremendous 
proportions.  With  the  development  of  printing,  modem 
advertising  may  be  said  to  have  begim  its  existence. 

Anything  which  contains  an  announcement  made 
by  an  advertiser  may  be  called  a  medium.  The  number 
of  mediums  is  limited  only  by  the  ingenuity  of  man. 
The  list  is  so  great  that  a  mere  enumeration  of  the 
different  mediimis  would  take  a  considerable  amount 
of  space.  Magazines  of  all  sorts,  newspapers,  programs, 
etc.,  are  mediums;  likewise  pencils,  calendars,  blotters, 
and  the  like  may  be  mediums.  Houses,  bams,  fences, 
and  signs  attached  to  buildings  are  often  employed  to 
carry  advertisements;  alleged  personal  mail  is  full  of 
them.  The  landscape  gardener,  by  planting  flowers 
or  grain  of  different  colors  in  the  correct  relations  upon 
the  side  of  a  hill  has  succeeded  in  advertising  certain 
commodities.  Such  are  a  few  of  the  mediums  which 
have  been  employed.  In  addition  to  all  these,  any  com- 
modity which  has  been  sold  and  appears  in  actual  use 
must  be  added  to  the  list.  Obviously,  a  thorough  and 
complete  classification  would  be  very  difficult. 


i 


I 


30     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

Before  turning  to  the  detailed  study  of  the  physical 
mediums,  the  mental  mediums  will  be  briefly  discussed. 
As  a  result  of  exposure  to  the  physical  mediums,  the 
minds  of  the  readers  become  more  or  less  saturated  with 
information  concerning  advertised  commodities.  Each 
new  advertisement  of  the  same  commodity  adds  to  the 
strength  of  the  impression,  and  to  the  likelihood  of  its 
being  recalled  at  any  subsequent  time.  By  the  cumula- 
tive effect  of  the  impressions  of  subsequent  advertise- 
ments of  the  same  commodity  together  with  the  ad- 
vertisements of  different  commodities,  a  knowledge  of 
the  different  commodities  —  different  ways  of  satisfy- 
ing the  various  needs  of  the  individual  —  results.  This 
leads  to  at  least  two  tendencies.  First,  the  advertise- 
ments or  the  commodities  are  mentioned  in  conversa- 
tion ;  in  that  way,  knowledge  of  the  commodity  spreads. 
In  the  second  place,  the  use  of  an  advertised  commodity, 
either  by  the  individual  or  by  a  friend  of  the  individual, 
likewise  tends  to  spread  the  information  concerning  the 
commodity.  Once  it  is  in  common  use,  its  appearance 
is  more  or  less  expected.  The  impression  spreads  that 
those  who  are  socially  wise  or  financially  able  tend  to 
use  the  commodity.  In  this  way,  there  grows  up  an 
impression  of  the  value  or  worth  or  status  of  the  com- 
modity which  probably  would  never  be  developed  by 
advertising  alone. .  The  total  impression  received  from 
advertising,  seeing  the  article  in  use,  hearing  it  discussed, 
the  vague  intangible  attitude  towards  it  which  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  habits  which  individuals  have  developed 
with  reference  to  it,  all  of  these  fuse  to  form  a  typical 
notion  of  the  commodity.  This  typical  notion  some- 
what definitely  establishes  the  place  of  the  commodity 
in  the  business  world.  Frequently  the  person  who 
possesses  the  typical  notion  concerning  a  commodity  is 
not  in  a  situation  to  purchase  it.  Even  so,  the  chances 
are  that  he  will  some  day  be  a  purchaser  of  the  advertised 


ADVERTISING  AND   ENVIRONMENT         31 

commodity  in  some  form.  The  advertising  space  which 
originally  informed  him  of  the  proposition,  the  talk  con- 
cerning it,  the  use  of  it  by  other  persons,  will  be  seed 
cast  upon  fertile  ground.  For  the  person  may  purchase 
many  years  after  having  seen  the  first  advertisement. 
The  first  advertisement,  however,  was  sufficient  to  start 
him  in  the  direction  of  the  purchase.  Just  what  effect 
this  process  has  with  reference  to  any  advertisement  or 
to  any  campaign,  however,  it  is  impossible  to  state  in  a 
definite  way. 

As  a  subdivision  under  the  mental  mediums  may  be 
mentioned  the  various  types  of  advertisements  and  the 
appeal  which  they  are  supposed  to  make.  One  division 
which  has  often  been  made  is  to  separate  advertisements 
into  three  groups:  classified,  display,  and  publicity. 
From  a  strictly  psychological  standpoint,  a  somewhat 
finer  classification  is  necessary.  The  following  may  be 
suggested : 

1.  Classified  advertisements.  These  are  supposed 
to  be  primarily  for  the  individuals  who  are  already 
interested  in  the  proposition,  those  who  feel  a  definite 
need  and  look  in  the  most  probable  place  for  a  way  of 
satisfying  it.  It  need  not  then  occupy  a  prominent 
place  in  the  medium,  for  its  attention  value  is  practi- 
cally assured.  It  is  a  cheap  and  effective  method  of 
informing  those  who  desire  to  be  informed  concerning 
any  particular  point. 

2.  In  the  second  place,  there  are  display  advertise- 
ments which  come  xmder  the  same  category  as  the 
classified.  If  an  individual  feels  a  definite  need,  as  for 
furniture,  he  has  two  main  ways  of  satisfying  that  need. 
He  can  either  go  to  the  furniture  dealers  in  his  particular 
town  and  in  the  neighboring  towns,  or  he  can  look  up 
the  furniture  advertisements  in  the  various  magazines 
which  he  can  find.  In  the  second  case,  the  advertise- 
ment is  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  as  far  as  the  prospect 


I 


i 


32     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

is  concerned,  a  classified  advertisement.  A  definite 
need  is  felt  and  one  of  the  acts  resulting  from  the  need 
is  the  search  for  a  means  of  satisfying  it.  Consequently, 
a  certain  percentage  of  the  display  advertisements  in 
any  magazines  and  newspapers  are  psychologically  clas- 
sified advertisements.  Or,  to  express  the  thought  a 
little  more  exactly,  any  display  advertisement  in  any 
medium  is  a  classified  advertisement  for  a  certain  per- 
centage of  the  readers  of  the  medium.  It  may  be  as- 
serted that  the  immediate  business  which  many  of  the 
display  advertisements  bring  in  comes  because  they 
function  like  the  classified  variety.  The  fact  that  the 
display  advertisement  brings  in  more  business  is  be- 
cause, owing  to  its  larger  size,  it  is  more  likely  to  be  seen 
by  a  greater  number  of  persons.  For  the  remainder 
of  the  readers,  however,  the  display  advertisement  will 
belong  under  certain  of  the  other  categories. 

S.  A  third  type  of  advertisement  is  the  competitive 
variety.    The  need  for  the  commodity  is  realized  by 
the  reader,  but  there  are  so  many  ways  of  satisfying 
the  particular  need,  that  the  reader  is  often  indifferent 
as  to  the  way  in  which  it  is  done.    Or  it  may  be  that 
his  present  method  is  satisfactory.    The  soap  situation 
is  an  admirable  example  of  this.    Two  possibilities  exist 
under  such  conditions ;  the  concern  may  advertise  very 
generally  in  the  endeavor  to  increase  the  total  amount 
of  soap  sold,  trusting  that  it  will  get  its  increased  per- 
centage of  sales  from  the  boom  in  trade,  but  being  con- 
tented with  a  very  small  percentage ;  or  it  may  endeavor 
to  influence  the  casual  reader  of  advertisements  to  pur- 
chase its  own  particular  brand,  doing  consequently  less 
philanthropic  work  but  better  business.     In  the  latter 
case,  the  advertisement  must  mention  some  particular 
reason  for  buying  that  commodity  or  must  teach  a  way 
of  using  it  in  a  new  manner  or  for  a  new  purpose.    The 
particular  reason  or  excellence  argument  would  possibly 


t 


ADVERTISING  AND  ENVIRONMENT         33 

be  more  effective  in  persuading  those  who  are  already 
users  of  the  same  or  a  similar  commodity;  whereas 
education  would  be  more  likely  to  attract  new  buyers 
while  retaining  the  old. 

In  order  to  obtain  a  satisfactory  amount^  of  new 
business,  an  advertisement  must  contain,  either  by 
picture  or  in  words,  an  announcement  of  some  partic- 
ular excellence  of  the  commodity,  some  reason  for  buy- 
ing it  rather  than  some  other,  a  new  use  for  the  com- 
modity, or  it  must  show  how  the  use  of  the  commodity 
will  benefit  the  user.  An  example  is  to  be  found  in  the 
campaign  conducted  a  few  years  ago  by  a  salt  concern. 
Selling  points  were  estimated  by  the  men  in  charge,  and 
it  was  found  that  the  point  which  loomed  largest  in 
their  minds  was  the  purity  of  the  product.  Purity 
was  consequently  made  the  keynote  of  the  campaign, 
and  those  financially  interested  awaited  returns.  They 
found,  after  several  months,  that  they  were  not  doing 
as  much  business  as  they  had  expected  to  and  cast 
around  for  the  reason  why.  An  analysis  of  the  accoimts 
showed  that  most  of  the  sales  came  from  the  Atlantic 
coast  and  the  Pacific  coast.  This  startling  discovery 
set  them  to  figuring  again.  It  was  remembered  finally 
that  one  of  the  peculiar  properties  of  their  salt  was  that 
it  would  always  pour.  Damp  weather  did  not  affect  it. 
Ordinary,  average  salt  in  damp  weather  and  in  damp 
climates  refused  to  come  from  the  shakers,  but  this 
variety  was  always  serviceable.  The  purity  appeal  was 
then  discarded  and  a  new  series  of  advertisements  based 
on  the  idea  that  it  would  always  pour  was  prepared. 
Sales  immediately  began  to  pick  up. 

4.  A  fourth  type  of  advertisement  is  the  sort  which 
tries  to  educate  the  public  up  to  feeling  a  new^  need 
and  then  suggesting  a  remedy  for  the  need.  This  can 
be  done  by  showing  how  the  same  commodity  can  be 
used  for  different  purposes,  but  probably  much  better 


h   H 


li 


I 


f 


34     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

by  showing  how  the  commodity  will  be  of  benefit  to  the 
user.  If  it  will  make  him  more  efficient,  healthier, 
more  alert  mentally,  improve  his  social  position,  and  so 
on,  if  it  contains  either  the  selfish  or  the  social  appeal, 
it  is  likely  to  be  very  forceful. 

5.  A  fifth  type  of  argument  is  for  the  purpose  of 
keeping  the  old  buyers.  It  is  primarily  a  reminder 
that  the  same  old  firm  is  still  doing  business  at  the  same 
old  stand;  that  its  financial  condition  is  such  that  it 
can  still  afford  to  advertise.  It  also  keeps  the  trade 
name  before  the  public  and  promotes  good  will.  It  is 
important  in  keeping  the  commodity  remembered  by  the 
buying  public. 

Many  of  these  classes  overlap.  The  general  tenden- 
cies are,  however,  distinct.  Any  one  advertisement 
may,  to  be  sure,  belong  in  the  last  four  of  the  five  classes 
at  the  same  time,  being  in  one  class  for  some  individuals 
and  in  another  for  other  persons.  The  classification 
represents  the  effect  upon  the  reader  rather  than  any 
peculiarity  in  the  structure  of  the  advertisement. 

We  are  now  in  a  position  to  study  the  question  of 
mediums  somewhat  more  in  detail.  In  the  first  place, 
certain  general  considerations  will  be  taken  up.  Fol- 
lowing that,  a  more  minute  study  will  be  made  of  the 
psychological  qualifications  of  certain  classes  of  mediums. 

1.  First,  the  value  of  any  medium  depends  upon  the 
total  amount  of  its  circulation.  In  advertising,  the 
appeal  is  made  to  people  in  masses,  so  the  more  that  are 
reached  by  any  one  advertisement,  the  more  will  prob- 
ably respond  by  buying  the  article.  Even  though  a 
person  is  not  influenced  to  the  point  of  purchasing  the 
commodity,  good  will  may  be  established  in  the  minds 
of  a  considerable  number. 

2.  For  the  procuring  of  immediate  returns  and  the 
establishment  of  an  effective  good  will,  however,  more 
than  sheer  mass  of  circulation  is  necessary.    For  im- 


ADVERTISING  AND  ENVIRONMENT         35 


mediate  results  an  advertisement  must  be  seen  by  pos- 
sible immediate  purchasers  rather  than  by  one  who  may 
purchase  in  ten  years.  Such  promisory  good  will  is 
undoubtedly  a  valuable  asset,  but  it  will  not  keep  a 
business  going.  Consequently,  it  may  be  argued  that 
an  advertisement  should  appear  in  a  medium  where  it 
will  be  seen  by  those  who  are  in  a  position  to  purchase 
the  commodity  immediately. 

The  circulation  of  any  medium  may  be  divided,  then, 
into  three  classes.  First,  the  total  circulation  may  be 
called  the  general  circulation.  Second,  a  certain  per- 
centage of  the  readers  will  be  possible  customers  and 
this  percentage  may  be  said  to  constitute  the  particular 
or  specific  circulation  of  the  medium.  Third,  the  re- 
mainder of  the  readers  will  either  not  be  interested  in 
the  proposition  or  will  not  be  in  a  position  to  buy,  and 
this  group  may  be  said  to  make  up  the  waste  circu- 
lation of  the  medium.  This  circulation  is  not  entirely 
waste,  however,  for  it  undoubtedly  does  arouse  a  certain 
measure  of  good  will  and  may  induce  future  purchases. 

To  obtain  specific  circulation,  it  is  necessary  that 
the  advertiser  possess  a  considerable  amount  of  knowl- 
edge concerning  the  distribution  of  the  circulation  of 
the  medium,  the  distribution  of  his  commodity,  and  so 
Considerations  of  this   nature   should   determine 


on. 


the  selection  of  the  mediums  which  are  employed.  That 
the  magazines  are  aware  of  this  condition  is  proved  by 
the  advertisements  of  magazines  which  appear  in  techni- 
cal advertising  journals.  Frequently  it  is  stated  that 
such  a  percentage  of  the  readers  are  men  and  a  certain 
percentage  women.  Likewise,  an  analysis  of  the  pro- 
fessions of  the  readers  can  be  obtained  by  the  advertiser, 
together  with  a  statement  of  the  relative  number  of  city 
dwellers,  farmers  and  inhabitants  of  small  towns  and 
villages  who  subscribe. 
3.  In  the  third  place,  the  quality  of  the  advertising 


• 


36     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

carried  in  the  medium  affects  the  value  of  the  medium. 
As  will  be  shown  more  in  detail  at  a  later  time,  fusions 
of  impressions  are  constantly  occurring,  so  that  no  one 
advertisement  is  judged  entirely  in  terms  of  itself  alone, 
but  its  value  is  influenced  by  numerous  factors,  such  as 
the  reliability  and  truthfulness  of  the  other  advertise- 
ments in  the  medium,  the  physical  appearance  of  the 
other  advertisements  appearing  on  the  neighboring  pages, 
the  quality  of  the  paper  upon  which  the  advertisements 
are  printed,  the  character  of  the  medium  itself,  and  many 
other  things  of  like  nature.  A  medium  which  guarantees 
its  advertisements  is  an  especially  desirable  one. 


CHAPTER  IV 


/ 


The  Different  Kinds  of  Mediums 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  classify  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  mediums,  but  the  success  attending  the 
efforts  has  been  relatively  slight.  The  following  sum- 
mary, taken  from  Printer's  Ink,^  showing  the  amount 
spent  for  the  different  kinds,  will  show  one  system  of 
classification.  More  recent  figures  show  that  the  total 
amount  of  money  spent  annually  in  this  country  is 
over  the  $700,000,000  mark. 

Newspaper  advertising $2so,ooo,cxdo 

Direct  mail  advertising 100,000,000 

Farm  and  mail  order 75,000  000 

Magazine  advertising       6o,'ooo,'ooo 

Novelty 30,000,000 

BiUposting 30,000,000 

Outdoor  electnc  signs 25,000,000 

Demonstration  and  sampling 18,000  000 

Street-car  advertising       lo^ooo'ooo 

House  organs 7,000,000 

Distnbuting        6,000,000 

Theater  programs        5,000,000 

$616,000,000 

Of  these  classes,  the  following  will  be  considered,  for 
they  represent  certain  psychological  differences:  news- 
papers, magazines,  street-car  signs,  billboards,  etc., 
letters  and  catalogues,  samples  and  demonstrations, 
and  novelties. 

I.  The  Newspaper  as  a  medium  has  certain  very 

» Printer's  Ink,  May  4,  191 1,  page  78. 
37 


i* 


38     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

definite  advantages.  It  has  a  relatively  dense  circula- 
tion over  a  Kmited  area.  A  very  large  percentage  of 
the  inhabitants  of  any  city  and  the  surrounding  terri- 
tory read  the  paper,  and  this  fact  makes  the  newspaper 
a  very  good  medium  for  those  goods  which  have  a  local 
distribution  only.  It  has  been  argued  likewise  that 
the  newspaper  is  a  satisfactory  medium  for  a  national 
campaign,  for  by  using  enough  different  papers  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  ^e  country,  it  is  possible  to  obtain  an 
intensive  circulation  which  would  be  impossible  with 
magazines  alone.  Add  to  this  the  fact  that  the  news- 
paper appears  every  day  of  the  year,  and  there  is  ap- 
parently developed  a  marvelous  force  for  the  national 
campaign,  for  the  advertisements  can  be  repeated  as 
often  as  necessary.  Again,  because  of  the  daily  circula- 
tion, the  newspaper  is  an  ideal  medium  for  special  sales, 
bargains,  for  any  proposition  in  fact  which  demands  an 
instant  response  on  the  part  of  the  buyer,  or  where  the 
commodity  is  short-lived. 

The  reverse  side  of  the  picture  is  that  an  advertise- 
ment inserted  in  a  newspaper  must  compete  in  attention 
value,  memory  value,  and  action  value  with  the  numer- 
ous other  advertisements  which  appear  in  the  same 
medium.  Then,  too,  the  quahty  of  the  paper  upon 
which  the  news  is  printed  is  relatively  poor.  This 
makes  it  extremely  difficult  if  not  impossible  to  make 
the  advertisement  as  attractive  as  it  would  have  been 
in  some  other  form  of  medium  which  used  a  better 
grade  of  paper.  The  use  of  color  is  prohibited.  A 
third  difficulty  is  that  the  newspaper  is  usually  in  the 
hands  of  the  reader  for  a  very  short  time  indeed.  Re- 
searches by  Scott,  which  will  be  reported  in  detail  below, 
show  that  the  average  time  which  each  individual  spent 
reading  newspapers  was  about  fifteen  minutes.  In  so 
short  a  period  of  time,  it  is  evident  that  very  few  adver- 
tisements at  most  can  be  noticed  by  the  reader. 


^    m 


THE  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  MEDIUMS     39 

Certain  facts  relative  to  the  reading  of  newspapers 
by  the  most  prominent  business  and  professional  men 
in  the  city  of  Chicago  were  brought  out  by  Scott.^  He 
sent  a  questionnaire  to  4000  men  and  received  answers 
from  2300.  He  found  that  each  person  reads  more 
or  less  thoroughly  one  or  more  papers.  His  tabulated 
results  follow: 

14  per  cent  read  but  one  paper 
46  per  cent  read  two  papers 
21  per  cent  read  three  papers 
10  per  cent  read  four  papers 
3  per  cent  read  five  papers 

2  per  cent  read  six  papers 

3  per  cent  read  all  the  papers  (8) 

Scott  found  that  the  majority  who  turned  in  reports 
thought  that  about  15  minutes  was  the  average  time 
spent  by  them  per  day  in  reading  the  daily  newspapers. 
Four  per  cent  spent  less  than  15  minutes  daily,  and  25 
per  cent  spent  a  greater  amount  of  time.  Such  a  brief 
period  permits  of  only  the  most  cursory  examination 
of  any  particular  paper.  "A  favorite  program,  as  re- 
ported, is  the  reading  of  the  headlines,  the  table  of  con- 
tents, the  weather  reports,  etc.  Then  if  time  admits  or 
if  anything  especially  interesting  is  discovered,  atten- 
tion may  be  turned  for  a  few  seconds  or  minutes  to  a 
more  leisurely  reading  of  the  articles  discovered  in  the 
preliminary  search.*'  Scott  then  points  out  the  moral. 
The  advertisement  must  be  so  constructed  as  to  tell 
its  story  quickly.  The  advertiser,  consequently,  should 
construct  his  message  in  such  a  way  that  the  important 
part  may  be  taken  in  at  a  glance.  If  sufficient  interest 
IS  aroused  in  this  manner,  the  advertisement  may  then 
be  read  through  as  a  whole. 

The  answers  received  to  the  questions  showed  that 
there  was  some  relation  between  the  profession  of  the 

» Scott,  W.  D.,  "The  Psychology  of  Advertising,"  pages  226-248. 


II 

HI 


I 


ii 


40     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

individual  and  the  paper  which  he  preferred.  It  was 
not  so  close  as  to  be  alarming,  however,  especially 
among  the  business  and  professional  men.  Possibly 
one  half  of  them  could  have  been  reached  by  using  a 
single  paper,  three  quarters  by  two  papers  and  over 
nine  tenths  by  using  four  papers.  This  is  a  point 
which  should  be  kept  in  mind  when  planning  any  in- 
tensive campaign  among  one  class  of  persons. 

The  reasons  given  for  preferring  one  paper  over 
another  is  striking  when  it  is  considered  in  relation  to 
advertising.    Scott's  analysis  is  given  below : 

Local  news       . 17.8    per  cent 

Political  news        15.8    per  cent 

Financial  news 11.3    percent 

Foreign  news 9.5    per  cent 

Editorials 9.0    per  cent 

General  news 7.2    per  cent 

Ethical  tone 6.7    per  cent 

Sporting  news       5.8    per  cent 

Cartoons 4.3    per  cent 

Special  articles 4.3    per  cent 

Music 1.88  per  cent 

Book  reviews        1.84  per  cent 

Arrangement 1.4    per  cent 

Society  notes .      1.4   per  cent 

Drama i.i    per  cent 

Art 9   per  cent 

Advertisements 44  per  cent 

Storiettes 13  per  cent 

Weather i    per  cent 

Humor 05  per  cent 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  table  that  the  overwhelming 
reasons  for  taking  a  particular  newspaper  are  in  con- 
nection with  some  news  value.  It  is  difficult  to  draw  the 
exact  line  of  demarcation  between  what  is  news  and 
what  is  not  news  when  the  term  is  taken  in  the  broad 
sense,  but  whatever  definition  be  given,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  news  element  was  the  important  one  in  be- 
tween 65  per  cent  and  95  per  cent  of  the  cases  given  in 
Scott's  table.    Consequently,  it  is  possible  to  draw  a 


THE  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  MEDIUMS      41 

second  moral  concerning  newspapers  as  mediums, 
namely,  that  the  advertisement,  to  compete  with  the 
news  interest  of  the  paper,  must  itself  be  newsy  in 
character. 

Scott  says  further:  "The  circulation  of  the  evening 
papers  in  Chicago  is  greater  than  that  of  the  morning 
papers,  and  it  is  probable  that  they  are  preferred  in 
more  cases  than  are  the  morning  papers.  For  business 
and  professional  men  the  reverse  is  true;  among  them 
the  morning  papers  are  read  in  larger  numbers  and  are 
preferred  in  more  instances  than  the  evening  papers. 
With  these  men  the  evening  papers  are  to  be  regarded 
merely  as  subsidiary.  The  laboring  classes  have  no 
time  to  read  a  morning  paper ;  but  after  the  day's  work 
is  over  the  evening  paper  is  read,  and  doubtless  much 
more  than  fifteen  minutes  is  devoted  to  it.  Many 
business  and  professional  men  prefer  evening  papers 
and  many  laboring  men  prefer  the  morning  papers,  but 
such  instances  are  exceptions  rather  than  the  rule. 

"A  majority  of  business  and  professional  men  fail  to 
see  advertisements  appearing  in  evening  papers  and  are 
not  greatly  affected  by  those  they  do  see.  Likewise, 
probably  a  majority  of  the  laboring  class  is  unaffected 
by  advertisements  appearing  in  the  morning  papers. 
If  these  statements  did  not  have  so  many  exceptions 
the  advertiser's  task  would  be  comparatively  simple 
when  it  comes  to  choosing  a  medium  for  any  particular 
advertisement.  If  he  wanted  to  reach  the  better  classes, 
he  would  use  the  morning  papers ;  if  he  wanted  to  reach 
the  laboring  class,  he  would  employ  the  evening  papers." 

2.  Magazines,  Trade  Journals,  Technical  Periodicals, 
and  the  like  have  their  special  and  particular  advantages 
and  disadvantages  as  mediums.  Among  the  advan- 
tages may  be  mentioned  the  much  greater  circulation 
which  certain  magazines  have  than  newspapers.  A 
corollary  of  this  is  the  fact  that  the  magazine  has  a 


42     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 


If 


Vi 


much  wider  range  of  distribution  than  the  newspaper, 
and  is  therefore  a  better  medium  for  national  adver- 
tising when  expense  is  considered.  The  opposite  side 
of  this  advantage  is  that  the  circulation  is  not  so  con- 
densed as  that  of  the  newspaper  so  that  the  magazine 
will  not  lend  itself  to  so  intensive  a  campaign  as  will  the 
newspaper.  The  purely  local  merchant  will  have  very 
little  use  for  space  in  a  magazine,  for  the  resident  in 
San  Francisco  will  care  little  about  the  strictly  retail 
trade  in  New  York  and  Chicago.  The  magazine  ap- 
pears, also,  with  relative  infrequency,  once  a  week, 
fortnight,  or  month  being  the  general  run.  This  makes 
it  impossible  to  advertise  many  different  kinds  of  com- 
modities in  it.  On  the  other  hand,  the  magazine  has, 
on  the  average,  a  longer  life  than  the  newspaper.  It  is 
not  so  lightly  discarded,  for  it  usually  represents  an 
article  of  more  value  to  its  purchaser.  For  this  reason, 
it  will  be  seen  again  and  again,  so  that  the  contents  have 
a  much  better  chance  of  being  seen.  This  would  tend 
to  give  advertisements  appearing  in  its  pages  a  higher 
attention  value,  a  greater  liability  of  being  seen  by  the 
reader.  This  is  especially  true  of  certain  of  the  preferred 
positions,  is,  in  fact  the  condition  that  makes  them  pre- 
ferred positions.  The  magazine,  too,  is  printed  usually 
on  better  paper  than  the  newspaper.  Consequently, 
advertisements  appearing  on  the  magazine  pages  are 
much  more  likely  to  be  pleasing  to  the  eye,  for  the 
pictures  are  much  better  and  it  is  possible  to  use  color 
in  the  make-up. 

With  our  present  knowledge,  it  is  absolutely  impos- 
sible to  determine  which  is  the  better  medium.  Each 
possesses  certain  advantages  and  each  in  turn  presents 
certain  disadvantages.  The  only  point  upon  which 
they  are  at  all  comparable  is  in  a  national  campaign, 
and  with  reference  to  this  point  definite  data  are  lacking. 

Several  statistical  inquiries  have  been  made  concem- 


> 


THE  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  MEDIUMS      43 

ing  the  number  of  individuals  who  read  the  advertise- 
ments in  magazines.  Scott,^  who  at  different  times 
observed  600  men  in  the  Chicago  Public  Library,  counted 
the  ones  who  at  the  moment  of  inspection  were  engaged 
in  reading  advertisements.  He  found,  in  this  snapshot 
way,  that  io3^  per  cent  were  at  any  moment  engaged 
in  reading  the  advertisements  in  the  magazines,  the 
remaining  89 J^  per  cent  were  reading  articles  in  the  body 
of  the  magazines.  This  is,  of  course,  no  guarantee  that 
some  of  the  893^  per  cent  would  not  at  some  time  read 
the  advertisements.  Scott  further  found  that  the  ad- 
vertisements were  read  in  a  very  cursory  way,  little 
attention  being  paid  to  them.  He  generalizes  from  these 
data,  and  concludes  that  people,  on  the  average,  are 
little  interested  in  advertisements  and  spend  little  time 
in  reading  them. 

As  a  result  of  a  questionnaire  which  was  circulated 
by  one  of  the  students  at  the  University  of  Michigan, 
it  was  found  that  of  500  college  students,  between  85 
and  95  per  cent  consistently  read  the  advertisements. 

The  number  of  persons  who  read  magazines  is  very 
difficult  to  determine.  The  average  number  of  maga- 
zines found  in  families  of  different  incomes  has  been 
determined,  however.  It  is  represented  graphically 
in  Fig.  I.  The  obvious  deduction  is  that  magazines 
are,  in  general,  to  be  found  in  the  possession  of  the 
families  with  the  larger  incomes.  Consequently,  articles 
appealing  primarily  to  the  poorer  classes  should  not  be 
advertised  in  general  magazines. 

A  striking  fact  relative  to  magazine  circulation  is  the 
seasonal  fluctuation.  As  shown  in  Fig.  II,  the  most 
advertising  is  usually  carried  in  May  and  December, 
the  least  in  January  and  August.  This  condition  corre- 
lated very  closely  with  the  periods  of  maximum  and 
minimum  mental  and  physical  efl&ciency. 

^  Scott,  W.  D.,  "  Psychology  of  Advertising,"  pages  135-139. 


44     ADVERTISING  AND   ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 


OVER  $6,000 
$3.000-$6,000 

$1.800-$3,000 


I 


$900-$1,800 


$600-$900 


$400-$600 


UNDER  $400 


PAUPERS' 


Fig.  I.  —  The  chart  shows  the  relative  number  of  families  with  different 
annual  incomes  which  have  magazines  in  their  homes. 

Baaed  on  the  census  of  iqoo.    Quoted  by  permission  from  Starch,  "  Advertising," 

page  105. 

The  circulation  of  the  technical  magazines,  trade 
journals,  etc.,  is  pretty  strictly  limited  by  the  character 
of  the  periodical.  The  character  of  the  advertising 
which  may  profitably  be  carried  is  limited  by  the  charac- 


THE  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  MEDIUMS     45 

ter  of  the  individuals  who  go  to  make  up  the  circulation. 
Such  mediums  are  good,  therefore,  for  the  advertise- 
ments of  certain  technical  commodities. 

One  of  the  main  disadvantages  of  both  newspapers 
and  magazines  as  mediums  is  that  it  is  very  difficult  to 
obtain  a  specific  circulation  by  means  of  them.     The  ad- 


1,500,000 


1,000.000 


600^000 


z 
< 


CD 
Ul 

Ms 


ae 

< 


0. 


> 
< 


UJ 


>, 

3 


C3 

t 

1- 

3 

111 

0 

< 

<0 

0 

> 
o 

z 


a 


Fig.  II.  —  Showing  the  total  number  of  lines  of  advertising  carried  monthly 
by  the  leading  magazines  for  the  years  indicated. 

Printer's  Ink,  Jan.  19,  191 1,  page  30. 

vertisement  must  go  to  many  who  are  not  particularly 
interested  in  the  commodity,  so  the  use  of  advertising 
space  in  these  mediums  represents  a  large  degree  of  waste. 
3.  Street  railway  placards  are  excellent  devices  for 
catching  the  attention  of  the  passing  throng.  It  has 
been  estimated  that  in  the  larger  cities,  85  to  90  per  cent 
of  the  adult  population  ride  in  street  cars  daily.    If 


46     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

this  is  so,  the  street  car  offers  a  very  valuable  medium 
for  the  advertiser.  Several  factors  contribute  to  add 
to  this  value.  In  the  first  place,  the  size  of  the  cards 
being  practically  the  same,  ii  by  21  inches  in  most 
cities,  the  attention  value  of  each  is  mechanically  the 
same.  While  the  position  occupied  by  the  card  may 
have  some  effect,  the  system  of  having  them  carried  by 
a  slow  moving  belt  avoids  this  difficulty.  So,  on  the 
theory  of  chances,  each  one  has  an  equal  chance  with 
every  other  of  being  seen.  Secondly,  the  time  spent  in 
looking  at  the  cards  is  largely  free  time.  The  individual 
must  stay  in  the  car  a  certain  length  of  tune  to  reach 
his  destination.  The  time  frequently  lies  heavy  on  his 
hands,  and  the  advertisements  are  read  in  sheer  self- 
defense  to  make  the  time  less  tedious.  As  a  result, 
the  cards  are  often  read  again  and  again.  Thirdly,  it 
often  happens  that  the  street-car  sign  is  the  last  adver- 
tisement seen  before  the  individual  enters  a  store  and 
the  recency  of  the  appeal  may  be  especially  effective. 
Lastly,  the  cards  are  read  in  a  leisurely  manner.  As 
Scott  ^  points  out,  those  thmgs  which  we  attend  to  for  a 
long  time  are  regarded  as  important.  If  a  thing  is  unim- 
portant, we  spend  Httle  time  on  it.  Since  we  spend  so 
much  more  time  on  the  street-car  signs  than  on  the  other 
forms  of  advertisements,  we  are  then  likely  to  give  them 
a  greater  value,  to  attach  a  greater  importance  to  them. 
^  4.  Street  signs,  billboards,  electric  signs,  and  the 
like  are  seen  by  large  numbers  of  persons  if  they  are 
located  favorably.  Usually,  on  account  of  the  necessary 
size  of  the  print  or  letters,  a  long  appeal  cannot  appear 
upon  them.  They  are  largely  serviceable  as  reminders 
and  by  the  repeated  effects,  may  add  greatly  to  the 
memory  value.  They  are  efficient  ways  of  making  the 
conmiodity  well  known  by  name. 

5.  Letters  and  catalogues  are  advantageous  mediums 

1  Scott,  W.  D.,  "The  Psychology  of  Advertising,"  page  221  ff. 


II 


THE   DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  MEDIUMS      47 

for  they  may  be  sent  only  to  those  persons  who  are 
definitely  interested  in  the  proposition,  thereby  making 
their  circulation  specific.  That  is  their  main  advantage. 
The  main  difficulty  is  to  get  them  read. 

6.  Demonstrations  depend  for  their  efficiency  upon 
the  principle  of  imitation.  We  see  somebody  else  do 
something ;  the  result  is  pleasing,  so  we  desire  to  dp  the 
same  thing  ourselves.  They  also  tend  to  call  attention 
to  the  commodity. 

7.  Samples  are  usually  given  so  that  a  habit  may  be 
developed  of  using  the  particular  commodity.  For 
this  reason,  the  sample  should  be  large  enough  to  give 
the  individual  several  chances  to  use  the  product.  Us- 
ing it  once  will  seldom  develop  a  habit.  There  is  also  the 
inertia  of  other  habits  to  be  overcome.  We  are  largely 
conventional,  tending  to  prefer  the  old  and  reliable  and 
usually  disliking  to  take  chances  on  anything  new.  Con- 
sequently, the  sample  must  be  generous  enough  to  allow 
the  user  to  give  it  a  fair  trial  and  to  enable  him  to 
regard  it  as  not  a  new,  but  a  relatively  old  friend. 

8.  Novelties  are  supposed  to  further  good  will,  to 
make  us  pleased  with  the  giver.  If  a  man  gives  us 
something,  we  are  pleased.  The  pleasure  derived  from 
the  gift  becomes  associated  with  the  giver  and  there 
arises  the  mental  impression  called  good  will.  We  like 
to  trade  with  him  again.  The  novelty  or  the  gift 
usually  presupposes  previous  trading  with  the  mer- 
chant, however. 

Such  are  some  of  the  different  kinds  of  mediums. 
Their  good  points  and  their  bad  points,  from  the  psycho- 
logical side,  have  been  pointed  out.  Nothing  has  been 
said  concerning  the  economic  side  nor  the  artistic,  for 
those  are  points  which  do  not  come  in  the  proper  scope 
of  this  work.  The  advertising  man  should  know  the 
laws  of  the  various  sciences  which  are  related  to  adver- 
tising and  make  the  best  possible  use  of  them. 


I 


CHAPTER  V 

Informing  the  Customer 

There  is  very  general  agreement  among  psychologists 
at  the  present  time  that  all  of  the  information  which  we 
possess  must  have  come  in  by  way  of  the  senses.  It  is 
true  that  this  information  may  be  rearranged,  combined 
in  new  ways,  but  the  processes  which  are  recombined 
thus  are  simply  bits  of  the  old  experiences  which  have 
been  taken  apart  and  put  together  in  a  new  way. 

Since  the  only  method  which  can  be  employed  by 
the  advertiser  to  inform  the  world  at  large  concerning 
his  commodity  is  by  appealing  to  some  of  their  senses, 
it  is  necessary  that  we  study  briefly  these  avenues  for 
receiving  impressions  from  the  outside  world. 

The  studies  of  the  anatomists  and  physiologists  have 
shown  that  there  are  special  arrangements  possessed 
by  each  normal  individual  which  collect  energy  from 
the  outside  world  and  forward  it  as  a  nerve  current  to 
the  brain  and  in  most  instances,  eventually,  to  the 
muscles.  These  receiving  structures  are  called  sense 
organs.  Each  type  of  sense  organ  is  structurally  dif- 
ferent from  every  other  type,  and  is  therefore  fitted  to 
receive  a  certain  kind  of  energy  from  the  environment. 
Somewhat  like  wireless  instruments,  they  may  be  re- 
garded as  being  tuned  to  receive  differently.  We  may, 
then,  have  as  many  different  kinds  of  information  as 
we  have  sense  organs. 

Each  one  of  these  sense  organs  is  in  turn  made  up  of 
several  different  kinds  of  receiving  structures,  each  one 

48 


SCHOOL  OF  BUSINESS 


INFORMING  THE  CUSTOMER 


49 


of  which  is  to  be  regarded  as  receiving  a  different  form 
of  the  same  kind  of  energy  from  the  outside  world. 
Thus,  the  eye  as  a  total  structure  is  an  instrument  for 
the  reception  of  the  so-called  ether  vibrations,  which 
give  sensations  of  light.  In  the  eye  are  still  oth^^r 
special  structures,  called  end  organs,  some  of  which  are 
stimulated  by  rays  which  produce  impressions  of  red, 
others  of  yellow,  others  of  green,  others  of  blue,  others 
of  white  and  still  others  of  black.  The  simple  experi- 
ence given  by  one  type  of  end  organ  only  is  called  a 
sensation.  It  follows  that  each  of  the  sense  organs  is 
capable  of  giving  us  several  different  kinds  of  experience. 
The  sense  organs  determine  the  main  classes  of  sensa- 
tions, and  the  end  organs  within  the  sense  organ,  the 
number  of  sub-groups  under  the  main  group.  On  this 
basis,  the  different  senses  may  be  classified  as  follows : 


Visual 

Red 

Olfactory 

Ethereal 

YeUow 

Aromatic 

Green 

Balsamic 

Blue 

Amber-musk 

Black 

Allyl-ca,codyl 

White 

Burning 

Auditory 

Noise 

Caprylic 

Tones 

Repulsive 

Cutaneous 

Cold 

Nauseating 

Wannth 

Kinaesthetic 

Muscles 

Pressure 

Tendons 

Pain 

Static 

Equilibrium 

Gustatory 

Sweet 

Balance 

Salt 

Dizziness 

Sour 

Organic 

Hunger 

Bitter 

Thirst 

This  is  the  entire  equipment  of  man  for  receiving 
information  from  the  world  in  which  he  lives.  Many 
of  the  end  organs  in  different  parts  of  the  body  are  being 
constantly  stimulated,  —  are  receiving  energy  from  the 
environment, — so  that  a  constant  mass  of  sensations 
is  pouring  in  upon  the  individual.  These  combinations 
are  called  sensation  complexes.    Thus  our  knowledge 


so     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

of  the  world  is  usually  received  in  the  form  of  sensation 
complexes,  made  up  of  large  numbers  of  sensations  which 
are  expenenced  simultaneously.  These  sensation  com- 
plexes are  modified  by  and  grouped  with  our  memories 
of  like  past  experiences  to  form  what  are  called  tech- 
mcaUy  perceptions.  Our  ordinary  awareness  of  an 
object  is  called  a  percept.  A  single  sensation  is  never 
experienced  by  an  adult  person,  and  the  only  reason  for 
mentionmg  this  class  of  phenomena  is  because  sensations 
are  the  elements  out  of  which  our  experience  is  built 
up.  From  this  standpoint,  they  correspond  closely  to 
the  elements  of  chemistry. 

A  brief  discussion  of  the  various  sensations  will  be 
pen,  more  for  the  sake  of  what  is  coming  after  than 
for  any  present  considerations.  Since  vision  is  the 
sense  which  is  most  closely  related  to  advertising  it 
will  be  left  until  the  last.  ^ 

These  groups  of  sensations  may  be  divided  into  three 
classes :  (i)  those  which  give  us  information  concerning 
the  body  Itself,  its  position,  its  general  welfare,  etc. ; 
(2)  those  which  give  information  concerning  things 
which  are  in  actual  contact  with  the  body ;  and  (3)  those 
which  inform  us  concerning  objects  at  a  distance. 

In  the  first  class  are  the  static,  organic  and  kines- 
thetic sensations.  The  sense  organs  for  the  static  senses 
are  the  semi-drcular  canals,  the  sacculus  and  the  utric- 
ulus  of  the  mtemal  ear.  These  structures  are  set  into 
activity  by  any  movement  of  the  head  or  the  body  as 
a  whole.  They  inform  us  of  the  position  of  the  body  a 
movement  of  the  body  in  any  direction,  and  help  us 
thereby  to  keep  balance  and  equilibrium  under  any  but 
very  unusual  conditions.  The  main  conscious  experi- 
ences which  are  obtained  from  the  action  of  these  struc- 
tures are  dizziness  and  nausea.  They  are  mentioned 
pnmanly  in  order  to  tell  the  advertiser  to  avoid  any 
display  which  will  bring  on  either  of  these  experiences 


INFORMING  THE  CUSTOMER 


5« 


While  in  New  York  City,  during  the  fall  of  191 5,  the 
writer  noticed  an  electric  sign  on  Broadway  which  was 
a  very  poor  display  from  this  standpoint.  The  sign 
was  of  the  variety  which  gives  the  illusion  of  movement. 
The  rate  of  movement  was  so  fast,  however,  that  it  made 
the  chance  observer  dizzy  in  a  very  short  time  indeed. 
In  fact,  the  words  of  the  sign  could  not  be  read  through 
before  dizziness  was  experienced.  Consequently,  while 
the  sign  had  a  tremendous  attention  value,  the  total 
impression  given  by  it  was  decidedly  unpleasant. 

The  sense  organs  for  the  kinsesthetic  sensations  are 
the  muscles  and  tendons.  Tiny  nerve  endings  pene- 
trate down  amongst  the  muscle  fibers,  and  any  change 
in  the  shape  of  the  fibers,  brought  about  by  contraction 
or  relaxation  of  the  muscles,  changes  the  degree  of  pres- 
sure upon  the  nerve  ending.  This  starts  a  nerve  current 
and  a  sensation  results,  informing  us  that  the  muscle 
has  moved  or  is  in  process  of  moving.  The  particular 
function  of  these  kinsesthetic  sensations  will  be  consid- 
ered more  in  detail  in  connection  with  the  study  of  cen- 
trally aroused  sensations. 

The  organic  sensations  are  those  which  are  received 
from  the  organs  and  structures  inside  of  the  body  itself. 
The  most  conspicuous  ones  are  hunger  and  thirst.  In 
addition,  however,  there  are  many  more.  All  are  usu- 
ally fused  together  into  a  mass  of  undifferentiated  sensa- 
tions which  are  popularly  called  feelings.  The  condi- 
tion of  feeling  well,  feeling  ill,  full  of  vigor,  lazy,  etc., 
probably  depends  upon  the  group  of  organic  sensations 
which  the  individual  is  experiencing  at  any  time.  It  is  an 
axiom  of  experience  that  a  person's  disposition  is  largely 
dependent  upon  the  efficiency  of  the  digestive  organs, 
and  the  condition  of  the  digestive  organs  is  reported  to 
the  individual  by  means  of  the  organic  sensations. 

In  the  second  class  of  sensations  are  found  the  cu- 
taneous and  the  gustatory  sensations.    The  entire  skin 


52     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

may  be  regarded  as  a  sense  organ  for  experiencing  in 
different  ways  objects  which  come  in  contact  with  the 
body.  There  are  functionally  four  kinds  of  end  organs 
which  give,  when  stimulated,  sensations  of  pressure, 
pain,  warmth,  and  cold.  To  these  may  be  added  cer- 
tain complexes  of  sensations,  as  itching,  tickling,  contact, 
and  touch. 

The  tongue  is  a  dual  sense  organ,  giving  both  gusta- 
tory and  cutaneous  sensations.  Of  the  gustatory  or 
taste  sensations  there  are  four  kinds,  sweet,  salt,  sour  and 
bitter.  Each  of  these  tastes  is  combined  with  certain 
of  the  cutaneous  qualities  to  give  it  characteristic  dif- 
ferences. Hot  coffee  tastes  different  from  cold  coffee, 
chicken  from  veal,  and  so  on,  in  each  case  the  essential 
difference  being  one  of  cutaneous  sensation  alone. 
Practically  anything  which  affects  the  tongue,  however, 
likewise  affects  the  nose,  so  that  in  reality  most  of  the 
so-called  flavors  of  foods,  drinks,  and  the  like  are  really 
odors.  This  may  be  easily  proved  by  stopping  the  nos- 
trils and  noticing  that  the  flavor  of  any  substance  very 
largely  disappears. 

In  the  third  class  are  to  be  found  smell,  hearing,  and 
vision  —  the  senses  which  inform  us  of  objects  which 
are  at  a  distance.  Concerning  smell  there  is  very  little 
that  is  definitely  known.  In  the  life  of  the  human 
individual,  smells  have  little  significance.  Smell  words 
have  little  place  in  our  vocabularies,  for  it  is  very  difficult 
to  determine  the  common  characteristics  of  odors. 
Consequently  odors  are  named  usually  in  terms  of  the 
objects  which  give  rise  to  them. 

The  ear  is  the  sense  organ  of  hearing.  Of  the  auditory 
phenomena  there  are  two  varieties,  noises  and  tones. 
The  various  complexes  make  up  the  sounds  with  which 
we  are  familiar.  There  are  no  peculiarities  to  be  found 
in  connection  with  the  facts  of  hearing  which  have  any 
particular  significance  for  the  advertiser. 


INFORMING  THE  CUSTOMER 


S3 


Since  the  appeal  to  sight  is  the  one  which  is  most 
frequently  made  by  the  advertiser,  a  more  detailed 
study  of  vision  is  imperative.  The  sense  organ  is  the 
eye.  A  detailed  account  of  its  structure  may  be  ob- 
tained from  any  physiology.  For  the  present  purpose, 
it  is  sufficient  to  know  that  the  eye  works  like  a  camera 
which  has  a  lasting,  self-renewing  plate  or  film,  the 
retina.  There  are  two  main  classes  of  visual  phenomena, 
colors  and  grays,  or  color  and  brightness.  The  better 
theories  of  color  vision  assume  that  there  are  but  four 
fundamental  colors,  red,  yellow,  green  and  blue,  and 
that  by  a  proper  mixture  of  these  it  is  possible  to  obtain 
all  other  colors.  To  these  should  be  added  two  ex- 
treme grays,  black  and  white,  which,  by  mixture,  are 
capable  of  giving  all  of  the  intermediate  grays. 

Colors  may  differ  from  each  other  in  hue  or  color  tone, 
saturation  and  brightness.  By  hue  is  meant  simply  the 
name  of  the  color,  a  mention  of  the  fact  that  it  is  red 
or  green.  The  addition  of  white  to  red  will  not  change 
the  color  tone,  nor  will  the  addition  of  black,  for  all  of 
the  color  which  is  left  will  still  be  red.  The  funda- 
mental color  name  is  then  unchanged.  The  addition 
of  any  other  color  which  is  not  an  exact  complementary 
will  change  the  hue.  Thus  in  mixing  lights,  red  and 
yellow  will  give  orange. 

By  saturation  is  meant  the  purity  of  the  color,  the 
lack  of  admixture  with  any  other  color.  If  color  is 
due  to  the  vibrations  of  the  ether,  homogeneous  wave 
lengths  will  give  a  saturated  color. 

The  brightness  of  a  color  is  its  gray  value.  It  is 
possible  to  match  any  color  with  a  gray  in  brightness. 
If  a  standard  series  of  grays,  running  from  white  to  black 
is  prepared,  it  is  possible  to  make  measurements  of  the 
brightness  of  a  color  in  terms  of  the  gray  series.  In 
this  way,  relative  measurements  of  the  brightnesses 
of  colors  may  be  made.    A  complete  description  of  a 


>t 


54     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

color  may  be  made  in  terms  of  hue,  saturation,  and 
brightness. 

By  mixing  two  colors  together,  a  third  may  be  ob- 
tained. What  the  third  color  will  be  depends  upon  the 
hues  of  those  which  aie  mixed,  their  distance  apart  in 
the  spectrum,  for  example.  Certain  colors,  when 
mixed,  will  give  gray.  These  are  called  complementary 
colors.  Considering  the  spectral  colors,  yellow  and 
blue  are  complementary.  The  following  chart.  Fig. 
Ill,  will  show  the  results  of  the  mixtures  of  the  spectral 
colors,  including  purple,  which  is  not  a  spectral  color. 
By  mixture  is  meant  the  mixture  of  lights,  not  of  pig- 
ments. The  results  obtained  by  the  two  methods  are 
quite  different. 

In  the  printing  of  colored  pictures,  plates,  etc.,  the 
mixture  of  pigments  is  necessary,  so  the  laws  of  color 
mixing  have  no  particular  value  to  the  advertiser  except 
in  indirect  ways.  These  indirect  ways  will  now  be  con- 
sidered. 

Contrast.  —  One  of  the  chief  uses  which  the  adver- 
tiser may  make  of  the  laws  of  color  mixture  is  to  be 
found  in  the  principles  of  contrast.  By  contrast  is 
meant  the  influence  which  one  color  has  upon  another. 
It  may  be  illustrated  by  the  following  example.  If 
upon  a  large  red  surface  there  is  put  a  small  gray  patch, 
the  gray  becomes  tinged  with  the  color  which  is  com- 
plementary to  the  red,  namely,  green-blue.  Likewise, 
if  the  large  surface  is  yellow,  the  color  induced  upon  the 
gray  will  be  blue  or  indigo.  Contrast  is  always  in  the 
direction  of  the  complementary  color.  Some  time  ago 
a  concern  had  difficulty  in  obtaining  an  adequate  picture 
of  a  refrigerator.  The  color  of  the  article  was  white 
and  they  wanted  to  give  in  connection  with  it  the  ap- 
pearance of  purity  and  whiteness.  Many  tests  failed 
to  obtain  a  satisfactory  result  and  finally  they  hit  upon 
the  device  of  printing  the  picture  on  yellow  paper.    It 


INFORMING  THE  CUSTOMER 


5$ 


was  then  decidedly  satisfactory.  What  they  had  done 
was  to  take  advantage  unknowingly  of  the  principle  of 
color  contrast.  The  effect  of  printing  the  picture  on  a 
yellow  background  was  to  impart  to  the  white  a  bluish 
tinge,  very  faint,  indeed,  but  sufficient  to  suggest  cold- 
ness and  purity. 

Colors  which  are  in  juxtaposition  also  influence  each 
other   in   the   complementary   direction.    If   red   and 


RED 


PURPLE 


ORANGE 


VIOLET 


INDIQO 


YELLOW^ 


YELLOW- 
QREEN 


BLUE- 
GREEN 


GREEN 


GREEN- 
BLUE 

Fig.  III.  —  Showing  the  color  relations.  Colors  which  are  exactly  opposite 
each  other  are  complementary  and  when  mixed  in  the  correct  proportions 
give  gray.  Colors  which  are  not  exactly  opposite,  when  mixed,  produce  an 
intermediate  color  on  the  short  arc  of  the  circle. 

Adapted  from  the  chart  given  in  Angell's  "Psychology,"  page  135. 

yellow  are  put  side  by  side,  the  edge  of  the  red  which  is 
next  to  the  yellow  apparently  becomes  tinged  with  blue, 
and  thus  appears  to  be  purple,  while  the  contiguous 
edge  of  the  yellow  becomes  tinged  with  green,  giving  it 
a  yellowish  green  appearance.    If  the  colors  are  sepa- 


'  i 


S6     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

rated  by  a  colorless  strip,  the  contrast  efifect  will  dis- 
appear. 

The  same  general  contrast  phenomenon  appears  when 
grays  are  used.  White  will  make  black  look  blacker 
and  black  will  make  white  appear  whiter. 

These  sensations,  visual,  auditory,  and  the  like,  are 
the  different  kinds  of  experiences  which  can  be  received 
by  an  individual  from  the  world  in  which  he  lives.  But 
once  a  sensation  has  been  experienced  and  the  experience 
has  disappeared,  the  same  sensation  may  be  brought 
back  in  the  form  of  a  memory,  or  centrally  aroused  sen- 
sation, as  it  is  called  technically.  It  is  perfectly  pos- 
sible to  think  of  the  smell,  taste,  and  appearance  of  the 
cup  of  coffee  which  you  had  for  breakfast  this  morning. 
This  general  group  of  phenomena  will  be  taken  up  more 
in  detail  under  the  general  head  of  association. 


CHAPTER  VI 

Experiments  in  Advertising 

A  PRINTED  advertisement  is  a  very  complex  affair  in 
itself.  Not  only  may  advertisements  differ  from  each 
other  in  size,  shape,  color,  picture,  size  and  kind  of  type, 
and  in  all  of  the  other  features  of  its  mecham'cal  make- 
up, but  they  differ  also  very  decidedly  in  what  may  be 
called  the  subjective  features,  the  appeal  which  is  made, 
and  so  on.  Not  only  is  this  the  case,  but  each  advertise- 
ment is  seen  by  a  large  number  of  persons  and  is  some- 
times seen  by  the  same  person  more  than  once.  No 
person  feels  exactly  alike  on  two  successive  occasions. 
At  one  time,  the  advertisement  might  appeal  greatly  to 
him,  at  another  it  might  be  equally  displeasing.  Then 
it  must  be  remembered,  too,  that  no  two  persons  ever  are 
exactly  alike.  The  advertisement  which  is  the  most 
appealing  to  one  might  be  the  reverse  for  the  other. 
Undoubtedly,  climatic  and  weather  conditions  influence 
the  efl&ciency  of  an  advertisement  considerably.  In 
addition  to  all  of  these  factors,  the  surroundings  among 
which  the  advertisement  appears  will  have  a  consider- 
able effect  upon  its  efficiency.  So  it  would  seem,  off- 
hand, that  the  advertiser's  problem  is  too  complex  en- 
tirely to  be  analyzed  into  its  elements  without  tremen- 
dous waste.  The  wonder  is  that  the  advertiser  who 
has  not  had  a  thorough  scientific  and  mathematical 
training  can  know  anything  about  his  business.  But 
in  spite  of  all  this,  certain  general  rules  have  been  for- 
mulated. 

57 


S8     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

If  it  were  possible  to  get  accurate  and  trustworthy 
returns  from  each  insertion  of  each  advertisement  that 
ever  was  run  by  a  concern,  it  might  be  possible  to  work 
out  laws.  Let  us  assume  that  a  relatively  simple  adver- 
tisement has,  in  its  make-up,  lo  units,  size  (i),  position 
(2),  illustration  (3),  type  of  appeal  (4),  kind  of  type  (5), 
medium  (6),  time  of  year  (7),  neighboring  advertisements 
(8),  financial  condition  of  the  country  (9),  and  activity 
of  competing  firms  (10).  If  these  conditions  could  be 
kept  the  same  time  after  time,  the  results  obtained  would 
indicate  a  general  tendency  and  a  law  could  be  worked 
out.  But  vary  only  one  of  the  conditions  and  the  re- 
sults would  probably  show  a  wide  deviation  from  those 
obtained  under  the  first  set  of  conditions.  Many  of  the 
conditions,  also,  cannot  be  controlled  by  the  advertiser. 
Apparently  he  is  more  or  less  helpless  concerning  the 
character  of  the  other  advertisements  which  appear  on 
the  same  and  neighboring  pages.  Neither  can  he  con- 
trol the  weather,  the  actions  of  competitors,  nor  the 
financial  condition  of  the  country.  For  all  of  these 
reasons,  the  obtaining  of  exact  data  by  advertisers  is  a 
very  difficult  proposition. 

Similarly,  the  subscription  lists  of  the  different  maga- 
zines differ  widely  in  the  kinds  of  persons  which  they 
reach,  so  it  is  probable  that  what  would  hold  for  one 
magazine  would  not  hold  strictly  for  another.  Human 
nature,  however,  is  very  homogeneous,  men  being  much 
alike.  They  have  the  same  general  tendencies,  but  differ 
considerably  in  the  particular  expression  of  those  ten- 
dencies. It  should  be  possible,  consequently,  to  estab- 
lish the  groupings  of  individuals  who  are  alike  in  certain 
respects.  It  is  known  that  whereas  men  differ  con- 
siderably from  each  other  in  physical  structure,  they  are 
still  a  good  deal  alike.  It  is  supposed,  likewise,  that 
men  are  mentally  about  as  much  alike  as  they  are 
physically.    One  of  the  great  difficulties  of  showing 


EXPERIMENTS  IN  ADVERTISING 


59 


this  mental  likeness  is  the  lack  of  any  adequate  units 
of  measurement.  However,  in  certain  cases,  satis- 
factory units  have  been  developed.  In  other  cases, 
much  valuable  data  may  be  obtained  by  the  method  of 
ranking,  which  will  be  discussed  later.  At  best,  only 
average  values  can  be  obtained.  These  together  with 
some  measure  of  their  variation,  shows  how  much  de- 
pendence may  be  placed  upon  a  given  measurement. 

The  ideal  scientffic  situation  is  the  one  in  which  con- 
ditions can  be  controlled  so  accurately  and  the  material 
for  the  experiment  can  be  devised  so  nicely  as  to  allow 
of  the  investigation  of  only  one  point  or  one  condition 
at  a  time.  If  one  condition  is  known  certamly  it  is 
possible  to  add  another  to  the  complex  and  see  what  the 
result  of  adding  the  second  is.  In  this  way  the  complex- 
ity of  the  material  may  be  increased  very  considerably 
and  still  substantially  accurate  results  may  be  obtained. 

Since,  in  the  scientffic  laboratory,  it  is  possible  to 
isolate  the  various  factors  one  at  a  time  in  connection 
with  some  of  the  situations  which  advertising  is  supposed 
to  meet,  it  would  appear  that  many  of  the  problems  of 
advertising  can  be  solved  satisfactorily  in  the  laboratory. 
Of  course  not  all  of  the  problems  can  be  investigated, 
but  enough  can  be  done  to  reduce  the  complexity  of  the 
whole  process  somewhat.  The  final  test  of  the^  suffi- 
ciency of  the  laboratory  method  is  to  be  found  in  the 
similarity  of  the  results  obtained  in  the  laboratory  and 
by  the  business  method.  A  very  considerable  degree 
of  correspondence  may  not  be  expected  to  exist  between 
two  relatively  short  tests,  either  business  or  laboratory, 
but  tests  which  cover  some  little  time  and  various 
sections  of  the  country,  which  take  place  during  differ- 
ent seasons  of  the  year  and  under  different  climatic 
conditions,  should  indicate  some  degree  of  correspond- 
ence. One  drawback  is  that  most  of  the  laboratory 
tests  are  performed  on  relatively  small  groups  of  students. 


V 


i 


60       ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

Students  represent  only  one  class  of  individuals,  but  will 
some  day  leave  college  and  university  and  become  an 
important  part  of  the  buying  public.  The  small  num- 
bers used  should  not  worry  the  man  who  is  famiUar  with 
statistical  methods,  for,  in  a  considerable  number  of 
the  tests  which  have  been  made  in  the  laboratories  of 
the  country,  enough  subjects  have  been  employed  to 
show  with  fair  accuracy  the  representative  features  of 
the  class  of  individuals  to  which  they  belong. 

Since  advertising  and  psychology  are  related  upon 
several  points,  attention,  perception,  association,  memory, 
and  action,  to  say  nothing  of  the  others,  it  would  seem 
plausible  that  experiments  carried  out  in  these  fields 
should  be  of  some  benefit  to  the  advertiser. 

Many  of  the  problems  of  attention  can  be  definitely 
settled  in  the  laboratory.  Some  which  have  been 
worked  out  are :  the  attention  value  of  different  parts 
of  the  page,  the  attention  value  of  color,  of  size,  of  shape, 
of  repetition,  of  novelty,  of  pictures,  of  the  different 
interests,  of  the  size  of  type,  kind  of  type,  borders,  and 
so  on.  In  general  most  of  this  work  has  been  done 
with  abstract  material,  for  the  more  abstract  the  material 
is,  the  more  probable  it  is  that  the  results  are  not  dis- 
turbed by  any  extraneous  factors.  Usually,  repeat 
tests  are  made  with  actual  advertisements  as  the  ma- 
terial. 

In  connection  with  memory,  tests  may  be  made  on 
the  effect  of  the  size  of  advertisements,  the  frequency 
of  insertion,  the  position,  the  type  of  appeal  which  is 
made,  the  memorability  of  different  kinds  of  things, 
and  the  like. 

In  connection  with  association,  it  is  possible  to  deter- 
mine how  associations  are  formed  most  readily,  the 
effect  of  recency,  frequency,  primacy  and  vividness 
as  principles  of  connection  and  the  relative  strength  of 
the  forward  and  backward  associations. 


EXPERIMENTS  IN  ADVERTISING 


61 


/ 


In  perception,  it  is  possible  to  ascertain  the  effect  of 
the  surroundings  on  the  same  page  and  the  opposite 
page,  to  determine  the  effect  of  the  previous  insertions 
of  advertisements  of  the  same  commodity,  to  deal  with 
the  factors  involved  in  reading  and  the  legibility  of 
different  sizes  and  kinds  of  type. 

In  connection  with  the  aesthetic  principles,  it  is  pos- 
sible to  work  out  the  facts  of  color  preference,  color 
harmony,  preferred  shapes  of  figures,  balance,  harmony, 
proportion,  and  the  like. 

When  it  comes  to  investigating  the  action  side,  there 
is  considerably  more  difficulty.  With  three  possible 
exceptions,  there  is  no  test  which  it  is  possible  to  per- 
form in  the  laboratory,  the  results  of  which  can  be  trans- 
ferred bodily  to  advertising  situations.  Certain  very  elab- 
orate situations  might  possibly  be  provided  which  would 
work  out  certain  relations,  but  such  are  impracticable 
from  the  standpoint  of  most  laboratory  appropriations. 

One  experiment  which  sheds  some  light  upon  volition 
and  action  is  the  reaction  time  experiment.  If  it  is 
assumed  that  in  certain  cases  the  reader  of  the  advertise- 
ment has  mentally  assented  to  the  purchase,  intends 
to  make  it,  his  condition  is  very  much  like  that  of  the 
man  who  is  serving  as  subject  in  the  reaction  time 
experiment.  In  this  way,  the  relations  between  the 
promptness  and  strength  of  response  and  the  size, 
intensity,  frequency,  and  duration  of  the  stimulus  may 
be  determined. 

The  other  experiment  consists  in  having  a  series  of 
advertisements  of  the  same  commodity  arranged  in 
order  of  merit  by  a  large  number  of  persons,  the  standard 
being  the  pursuasiveness  of  the  advertisement,  or  its 
power  to  make  the  individual  buy  the  commodity. 
That  advertisement  which  is  ranked  the  highest  on  the 
average  by  the  subjects  is  then  said  to  be  the  best  ad- 
vertisement from  the  standpoint  of  sales. 


PH 


i  ii 


I 


62      ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

The  objections  to  this  procedure  are  given  below : 

In  the  first  place,  the  experimenters  have  in  very  few 
instances  compared  the  laboratory  results  with  the 
business  results.  The  idea  of  this  comparison  is,  of 
course,  to  show  the  dependability  of  the  method  as  a 
laboratory  technique  for  investigating  advertising  prob- 
lems. One  thing  which  has  been  done  is  to  compare 
the  order  as  determined  by  the  laboratory  experiment 
with  the  order  as  determined  by  the  opinion  of  certain 
selected  advertising  experts,  who  were  practically  put 
through  the  same  experiment.  Since  Dr.  E.  K.  Strong, 
Jr.,  was  one  of  the  first  to  apply  this  method  to  the 
psychology  of  advertising,  a  quotation  from  one  of  his 
articles  will  be  appropriate  in  bringing  out  the  point. 
**It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  repeat  that  the  results  of  the 
Packer  Manufacturing  Company  are  not  based  upon 
carefully  compiled  data,  but  only  upon  the  judgment 
of  the  firm  based  on  their  business  experience.  Any  one 
familiar  with  advertising  knows  that  such  data  have  not 
been  compiled  for  any  extensive  set  of  advertisements, 
let  alone  a  series  of  fifty  extending  over  twenty  years 
of  service.  If  such  data  did  exist,  they  could  not  be 
used  at  their  full  face  value,  as  an  advertisement  of 
twenty  years  ago  might  have  been  very  effective  then 
and  be  out  of  date  to-day. 

"The  order  of  the  twenty-five  subjects  correlates 
plus  .52  with  the  order  of  either  of  the  two  advertising 
experts.  The  correlations  between  the  orders  of  the 
two  advertising  experts  is  plus  .64.  These  relation- 
ships are  lower  than  those  which  have  been  obtained  with 
other  sets  of  advertisements." 

**It  is  evident,  then,  that  the  *  order  of  merit  method' 
does  give  results  that  correlate  high  with  results  obtained 
in  business."  ^ 

Since  by  results  obtained  in  business,  Strong  must 

*  Strong,  Jaur.  of  Phil.,  Psy.,  etc.,  VIII :  pages  603,  604. 


EXPERIMENTS  IN  ADVERTISING 


63 


evidently  mean,  in  the  above  connection,  the  opinion 
of  advertising  experts,  another  quotation  taken  from 
the  same  writer,  but  in  a  different  article,  will  be  es- 
pecially interesting.  **At  the  present  time  there  is 
no  way  of  estimating  which  are  the  good  and  which  are 
the  poor  advertisements  except  on  the  basis  of  personal 
judgment;  and  when  the  reviews  and  criticisms  of 
different  advertising  men  are  compared,  it  is  apparent 
that  this  personal  judgment  is  to-day  a  very  variable 
factor."  1 

The  second  quotation  robs  the  first  of  whatever  force 
it  might  originally  have  had. 

In  order  to  be  of  any  particular  value,  the  correlation 
between  the  business  test  and  the  laboratory  test  must 
be  worked  out  with  actual  business  returns.  These  are 
obtainable  for  but  few  kinds  of  commodity,  since  they 
depend  upon  elaborate  systems  of  keying.  In  order 
to  have  the  keying  satisfactory,  all  orders  must  even- 
tually come  to  a  head  office,  labeled  in  such  a  way  that 
each  advertisement  may  receive  full  credit  for  its  work. 
Such  a  thing  is  an  obvious  impossibility  with  such 
products  as  soaps,  foods,  and  in  general  those  things 
which  are  procurable  at  stores. 

The  advertisements  which  can  be  accurately  keyed 
are  ordinarily  mail  order  propositions.  With  any 
adequate  system  of  checking  returns,  it  is  possible  to 
figure  out  from  keyed  advertisements  the  following 
things:  the  average  number  of  inquiries  per  insertion, 
the  average  cost  per  inquiry,  the  total  number  of  sales, 
the  profit  or  loss.  Some  of  these  returns  obviously 
depend  upon  other  things  than  the  advertisement  itself, 
but  it  was  the  advertisement  which  started  the  whole 
process  going. 

Which  of  these  is  the  fairest  measure  of  the  pulling 
power  of  the  advertisement?    The  number  of  inquiries 

*  Strong,  Jour.  Ed.  Psy.,  IV  :  page  393. 


I 


i 


\: 


I- 
1 


p 


64      ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

indicates  the  number  of  persons  who  were  influenced 
sufficiently  by  the  appeal  to  be  incited  to  action.  A 
weakness  of  this  method  is  that  the  position  of  the  ad- 
vertisement on  the  page  ^  or  the  position  of  the  page 
in  the  advertising  section  of  the  magazine  may  be 
detrimental.  The  same  advertisement  in  some  other 
position  might  have  *' pulled"  many  more  inquiries. 
Again,  the  time  of  year  is  a  very  important  matter. 
There  are  good  seasons  and  bad  seasons.^  General 
economic  conditions,  national  or  sectional  eras  of  pros- 
perity, are  also  modifying  factors. 

It  seems  obvious  that  the  natural  procedure  in  such 
cases  would  be  to  repeat  the  advertisement  enough  times 
in  different  parts  of  the  magazine  and  at  different  times 
selected  to  take  account  of  seasonal  differences  and  so 
on.  The  objection  is  that  with  successive  appearances 
of  the  mail-order  advertisement  there  is  a  fairly  constant 
and  regular  decrease  in  the  number  of  inquiries.^  How- 
ever, if  enough  advertisements  were  used  in  this  way, 
either  the  total  or  the  average  number  of  inquiries 
would  be  a  sufficiently  satisfactory  measure  of  the  pull- 
ing power  of  the  advertisement.  It  is,  in  fact,  the  only 
obtainable  measure  of  the  pulling  power  uncomplicated 
by  other  factors. 

A  second  possibility  is  the  average  cost  per  inquiry. 
This  method  is  open  to  all  of  the  objections  noted  above, 

*  Starch,  "Advertising,"  pages  106-116. 

*Shryer,  "Analytical  Advertising,"  pages  167-170.  Shryer  says,  on 
page  169:  "Asa  whole,  however,  it  maybe  said  that  the  three  largest 
months  of  practically  every  year  are  January,  February,  and  March." 

See  also  Starch,  '*  Advertising,"  page  50.  The  table  at  the  bottom 
of  the  page  shows  that,  for  the  commodity  mentioned,  more  advertising 
was  run  and  more  sales  were  made  during  the  first  half  of  the  year  than 
during  the  last  half.  Another  table,  given  by  Starch  on  page  93,  in- 
dicates that  the  most  advertising  is  carried  in  May  and  December;  the 
least  in  January  and  August. 

*  Shryer,  "Analytical  Advertising,"  pages  81  ff.,  pages  220-223. 
Starch,  "Advertismg,"  pages  170-179.  Strong,  Psy.  Rev.,  XXI :  page 
147. 


EXPERIMENTS  IN  ADVERTISING 


6S 


and  to  a  still  further  one.  The  actual  cost  of  the  space 
occupied  by  the  advertisement  does  not  in  any  way 
directly  affect  the  excellence  of  the  advertisement  itself. 
Even  in  the  same  medium,  the  charge  per  page  is  liable 
to  sudden  shifts.  It  is  unfair  to  the  advertisement  to 
make  it  suffer  the  handicap  of  the  increased  rate.  The 
amotrnt  charged  per  page  is  not  an  accurate  measure- 
ment of  the  circulation  of  the  medium  and  so  an  ap- 
proximation of  the  number  of  persons  who  may  read  the 
advertisement. 

The  number  of  sales  is  obviously  unfair,  for  we  have 
to  do  there  not  only  with  the  advertisement  itself,  but 
with  the  goodness  or  badness  of  the  follow  up  system, 
the  efficiency  of  salesmen,  etc.  Some  of  the  blame  may 
be  laid  to  the  advertisement,  for  it  may  have  been  con- 
structed in  such  a  way  as  to  have  interested  many  who 
could  not  possibly  have  bought  that  Kne  of  goods.  Or 
they  may  have  been  misled  by  the  advertisement  and 
when  they  found  out  what  the  product  was  from  the 
follow  up  system,  they  lost  interest. 

The  question  of  profit  or  loss  resulting  from  the  use  of 
a  certain  advertisement,  while  of  considerable  interest 
to  the  business  man,  is  still  not  a  test  of  the  pulling  power 
of  the  advertisement,  but  is  a  measure  of  the  pulling 
power  as  modified  by  the  cost  of  the  advertisement  and 
the  adequacy  of  the  follow  up  system. 

Taking  it  all  in  all,  the  average  number  of  inquiries 
per  insertion  seems  to  be  the  fairest  test  of  the  actual 
pulling  power  of  the  advertisement.  It  is,  then,  the 
measurement  which  should  be  used  in  endeavoring  to 
obtain  the  correlation  between  the  orders  of  the  busi- 
ness test  and  the  laboratory  test. 

Another  criticism  of  the  order-of-merit  method  as  it 
has  often  been  used  is  on  the  ground  of  the  number  of 
subjects  employed  or  the  number  of  tests  made.  Ob- 
viously, if  relatively  few  additional  tests  will  change 


4"i 


1 

.I'i 


1 1 

I 


r# 


i 


I    t 


66      ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

the  order  of  the  advertisements  in  the  series,  the  experi- 
ment is  unfinished.  It  appears  that  the  number  of  tests 
necessary  depends  upon  at  least  two  factors.  In  the 
first  place,  the  actual  amount  of  difference  in  terms  of 
judgment  steps  between  the  contiguous  advertisements 
in  the  series  is  an  important  consideration.  With  adver- 
tisements far  apart,  where  the  judgment  is  easy  to  make, 
the  order  will  be  established  with  relatively  few  subjects. 
But  as  the  judgments  become  more  and  more  difficult, 
an  increasing  number  of  tests  will  be  necessary.  Secondly, 
the  number  of  advertisements  in  the  series  will  be  a 
determining  factor.  For  as  the  number  of  advertise- 
ments in  the  series  is  increased  the  judgment  steps  must 
necessarily  decrease,  thus  rendering  a  satisfactory  ar- 
rangement more  difficult. 

Shryer,^  who  was  the  first  to  use  any  considerable 
number  of  persons  in  an  advertising  experiment,  em- 
ployed a  total  of  508  in  his  efforts  to  reach  practical 
certainty.  In  the  most  complex  of  his  experiments,  in 
which  the  method  of  paired  comparisons  was  used,  the 
final  order  was  obtained  at  the  300th  trial.  The  ad- 
dition of  200  more  subjects  left  the  relative  order  of  the 
advertisements  in  the  series  unchanged.  In  this  ex- 
periment he  used  but  five  different  advertisements. 
Had  he  used  more  than  5,  10  for  example,  he  probably 
wotdd  have  had  to  employ  a  great  many  more  indi- 
viduals before  obtaining  a  satisfactory  final  order. 
To  be  sure,  his  material  was  such  that  there  was  a  great 
chance  for  variability  of  response,  but  this  is  true  of 
practically  all  experiments  carried  on  in  the  field  of 
advertising. 

The  next  point  to  be  considered  is  whether  the  order- 
of-merit  method  can  be  used  to  determine  the  relative 
pulling  power  of  a  series  of  advertisements.  Before 
considering  this  point  theoretically,  we  may  repeat  that 

1  Shryer,  "System,"  XXV :  page  146. 


EXPERIMENTS  IN  ADVERTISING 


67 


the  experiments  which  have  been  designed  and  carried 
on  to  test  the  correlation  between  the  laboratory  and  the 
business  test  have  sometimes  shown  correlations  as 
high  as  -f  i.oo  and  sometimes  as  low  as  -  0.60.  It 
would  seem,  then,  that  sometimes  the  method  will  work 
and  sometimes  it  will  not. 

^  The  instructions  usually  given  in  the  experiment  are 
''Sort  these  advertisements  according  to  the  order  in 
which  you  would  buy  the  .  .  ."  That  means  that 
every  individual  who  performs  the  experiment  ^^es 
a  definite  arrangement  of  the  advertisements,  the  Ber 
showing  the  persuasiveness  as  far  as  he  is  concerned. 
The  assumption  is  that  from  his  arrangement  of  the 
advertisements,  it  is  possible  to  tell  which  one  made 
him  buy  the  article,  for  each  one  experimented  upon  is 
evidently  regarded  as  a  purchaser.  There  is,  unfortu- 
nately, no  way  of  telling  which  of  the  persons  experi- 
mented upon  would,  in  actual  life,  be  sufficiently  inter- 
ested in  any  of  the  advertisements  in  the  series  to  make 
him  purchase  the  commodity. 

In  business,  the  situation  is  quite  different.  The 
figures  quoted  from  Shryer  on  page  12  indicate  that  on 
the  average  the  inquiries  are  i  per  cent  of  the  circu- 
lation of  the  magazine.  It  has  been  estimated  that 
5  persons  read  each  magazine.  There  is,  then,  a  possi- 
bility that  the  advertisement  will  be  seen  by  500,000 
persons  if  the  circulation  is  100,000.  The  estimates 
of  the  number  of  persons  who  see  the  advertisements 
varies  from  10  per  cent  to  50  per  cent  of  the  readers  of 
the  magazine.  If  we  take  the  lower  limit,  10  per  cent, 
that  means  that  50,000  will  see  some  of  the  advertise- 
ments. The  proportion  which  will  see  a  particular  ad- 
vertisement is  pure  guess  work.  As  a  working  basis, 
we  will  take  20  per  cent.  That  means  that  10,000  will 
see  the  advertisement,  and  a  thousand  will  be  sufficiently 
interested  in  it  to  reply,  or  10  per  cent.    A  great  many 


► 


i 


68      ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

of  the  other  90  per  cent  who  do  not  inquire  are  almost 
interested  enough  to  do  so,  still  more  are  slightly  inter- 
ested, others  are  indifferent,  while  still  otliers  get  a 
negative  reaction.  Therefore,  the  results  obtamed 
from  the  mail-order  business  test  are  got  from  a  very 
small  percentage  of  the  total  number  of  readers.  The 
results  obtained  from  the  laboratory  test  are  arrived  at 
by  using  the  results  of  the  whole  100  per  cent  of  readers, 
instead  of  the  10  per  cent  who  might  on  the  average  be 
interested  enough  to  answer  the  advertisement.  The 
using  of  the  other  90  per  cent  of  the  persons  introduces 
factors  into  the  experiment  which  would  quite  certainly 
modify  the  results  so  that  they  would  not  adequately 
express  the  normal  results  for  the  10  per  cent.  If  there 
was  only  some  way  of  determining,  in  the  laboratory 
experiments,  the  individuals  who  make  up  the  10  per 
cent  who  are  sufficiently  mterested,  we  probably  could 
arrive  at  fairly  dependable  results. 

It  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  a  mail-order  busmess 
appeals  at  best  to  a  very  small  number  of  persons.  The 
same  general  situation  exists,  also,  with  regard  to  the 
more  expensive  commodities,  such  as  pianos  and  vacuum 
cleaners.  Such  advertisements  certainly  appeal  to  a 
very  small  and  select  class.  Consequently,  it  is  doubtful 
if  adequate  experiments  could  be  performed  upon  ad- 
vertisements of  these  commodities  in  the  laboratory. 
The  advertisements  of  the  cheaper,  more  frequently  used 
goods,  such  as  foods,  soaps,  etc.,  very  probably  could  be 
tested  adequately  if  there  were  any  way  of  determinmg 
accurately  the  actual  business  returns.  ^    ^ 

Lastly,  it  is  extremely  doubtful  if  the  great  majority  of 
individuals  can  tell  which  of  a  series  of  advertisements 
would  be  most  likely  to  make  them  buy  the  advertised 
product.  It  is  very  much  like  asking  a  man  what  he 
would  do  if  his  house  burned  up  in  the  night.  The 
measurement  of  impressions  in  relative  terms  offers 


EXPERIMENTS  IN  ADVERTISING 


69 


considerably  less  difficulty,  as  has  been  demonstrated 
in  the  experimental  work  upon  sensation,  aesthetic  judg- 
ments, and  so  on.  Predicting  probable  conduct  is  a 
much  more  hazardous  matter.  It  is  extremely  im- 
probable that  we  can  really  tell  what  we  will  do  under 
a  hypothetical  condition  unless  we  have  developed  a 
very  definite  habit  for  meeting  that  situation.  Then 
the  chances  are  that  we  will  have  two  or  more  habits 
which  are  about  equally  serviceable.  Unfortunately 
for  the  advertiser,  a  considerable  percentage  of  the 
readers  of  advertisements  have  formed  the  habit  of 
appreciating  advertisements  and  seldom  if  ever  re- 
sponding. 

The  reading  of  advertisements  has  become  a  fixed 
habit  with^  many  persons,  not  because  they  expect  to 
buy  anything,  but  because  the  advertisements  are  an 
essential  part  of  the  enjoyable  features  of  the  magazine. 
They  are  looked  at  for  aesthetic  appreciation,  they  are 
looked  at  for  news  value,  for  they  give  information  con- 
cerning the  industrial  activities  of  the  country  which 
could  never  be  found  in  the  body  of  the  magazine. 

The  general  conclusion  which  we  seem  forced  to  accept 
is  that  the  order-of-merit  test  is  not  a  very  adequate 
laboratory  method  of  testing  the  business  value  of 
advertisements.  Where  it  is  possible  to  obtain  accurate 
business  measurements,  the  laboratory  test,  using 
students  as^  subjects,  appears  to  be  quite  inadequate. 
Where  it  is  impossible  to  secure  accurate  business  meas- 
urements, the  laboratory  test  may  be  adequate.  There 
is  no  way  of  telling. 


CHAPTER  VII 


M 


Statistical  Methods 

A  PROBLEM  of  some  importance  is  what  to  do  with 
the  results  obtained  from  an  experiment  or  from  actual 
advertisements,  once  they  are  secured.  For  if  the  in- 
dividual knows  nothing  about  working  up  such  results, 
his  time  is  very  largely  wasted. 

Almost  all  of  the  measurements  of  either  physical  or 
mental  sciences  are  based  on  physical  analogies.  To 
most,  purely  physical  measurements  offer  no  difficulty. 
It  is  assumed  that  any  one  can  weigh  a  piece  of  rock  or 
measure  a  piece  of  cloth.  It  is  suspected  by  few  that 
if  delicate  enough  instruments  are  used,  the  weight  of 
the  same  piece  of  rock,  determined  time  after  time  by 
the  same  scales,  will  seldom  be  twice  exactly  alike.  In 
exact  physical  tests,  it  is  necessary  to  weigh  the  same 
object  several  times  and  obtain  the  true  weight  by 
averaging  the  results  of  the  different  measurements. 
Likewise,  in  making  less  tangible  measurements,  as  for 
example,  judging  the  relative  weight  of  several  pieces 
of  rock,  we  find  that  there  is  a  very  considerable  varia- 
bility. It  will  be  foimd,  however,  that  in  most  cases, 
a  majority  or  at  least  a  plurality  of  judgments  will  be 
either  identical  or  grouped  very  closely  together.  An 
example  will  make  this  clear. 

If  four  weights,  all  of  the  same  size  and  visual  ap- 
pearance, weighing  respectively  45,  47-275»  49-50)  and 

70 


STATISTICAL  METHODS 


71 


52.20  grams,  are  presented  to  a  person  and  he  is  asked 
to  arrange  them  in  the  order  of  their  heaviness,  the  fol- 
lowing table  results : 


Number  of  Weight 


I 

2 

3 

4 

Order 

2 

I 

3 

4 

2 

4 

3 

3 

3 

4 

2 

4 

3 

2 

3 

4 

2 

3 

4 

2 

4 

3 

I 

3 

4 

2 

3 

4 

3 

3 

4 

Av.  = 

1.3 

1.8 

3-3 

3-7 

In  this  way,  it  is  possible  to  determine  the  relative  posi- 
tion of  a  number  of  weights  in  a  series,  and  for  determin- 
ing the  order  of  heaviness,  the  objective  balance  is  unnec- 
essary. Also,  by  the  use  of  proper  formulae,  it  is  possible 
to  change  measurements  of  relative  position  into  meas- 
urements of  amount.  This  method  has  proved  to  be 
very  useful  in  measuring  series  where  it  was  impossible  to 
obtain  definite  units  in  terms  of  which  the  measurements 
might  be  made,  such  as  the  legibility  of  handwriting,  the 
humorousness  of  pictures,  the  pleasingness  of  colors,  the 
persuasiveness  of  advertisements  and  the  like. 

Let  us  compare  the  results  obtained  by  this  method 
of  arriving  at  the  relative  weights  of  certain  substances 
with  another  experiment  devised  to  determine  the  relative 
persuasiveness  of  a  certain  set  of  advertisements.  The 
series  consisted  of  4  half  page  advertisements  of  the 
American  Collection  Service.   These  advertisements  were 


72       ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

given  to  a  group  of  i6i  persons  who  were  asked  to 
arrange  them  in  order  of  persuasiveness.  The  results  fol- 
low. Advertisement  A  received  the  following  ratings  at 
the  hands  of  the  i6i  subjects,  the  numbers  in  each  case 
referring  to  the  position  which  the  advertisement  held 
in  the  mind  of  the  subject.  Number  i  indicated  that 
it  was  the  most  persuasive,  4  the  least,     i, 1,1,1, 1,1, 

ij  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  1,1,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I, 
I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I, 

1,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  I,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2, 

2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2, 
2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2, 

3»  3>  3>  3j  3?  3j  3»  3>  3>  3?  3>  3>  3j  3?  3j  3>  3>  3?  3>  3'  3>  3j  3j  3> 
3>  4»  4j  4)  4j  4»  4>  4?  4^  4?  4- 

The  usual  way  of  getting  the  central  tendency  of  such 
a  series  of  numbers  is  to  add  all  of  the  numbers  together 
and  divide  by  the  total  number  of  values  which  occur, 
in  this  case  161 .  If  we  add  all  of  these  nimibers  together, 
we  find  that  the  sum  is  296.  The  average  is  296/161,  or 
1.84.  A  much  easier  way  of  obtaining  the  average  is  the 
following,  —  count  the  total  number  of  times  the  value 
I  is  given,  the  total  number  of  times  2  is  given,  likewise 
for  3  and  4.  Doing  this,  it  is  found  that  i  occurs  71 
times,  2,  55 ;  3,  25 ;  and  4,  10  times.  If  we  add  i  to 
itself  71  times,  the  result  is  71  X  i  or  71.  If  we  add  2 
to  itself  55  times,  the  result  is  no;  likewise,  3  occurring 
25  times  gives  a  total  of  75 ;  and  4  happening  10  times,  of 
40.     So  the  figures  may  be  written  as  follows : 


Position 

No.  or  Times  A  appears  in  that 
Position 

Product 

I 

a 

3 

4 

71 

55 

10 

71 
no 

75 
40 

161 

296 

STATISTICAL  METHODS 


73 


Dividing  the  sum  of  the  products,  296,  by  the  total 
number  of  times  some  position  was  assigned  to  the  ad- 
vertisement, 161,  we  obtain  1.84,  the  average,  exactly 
the  same  number  that  was  obtained  by  the  longer  and 
more  cumbersome  process  discussed  above. 

The  results  for  the  entire  series  of  four  advertisements 
will  now  be  given. 


Position 

A 

B 

c 

D 

I 

71 

67 

x6 

7 

8 

55 

41 

42 

23 

3 

2$ 

40 

56 

40 

4 

10 

13 

47 

91 

Average    .... 

1.84 

1.99 

2.78 

3-33 

Order 

I 

2 

3 

4 

Instead  of  using  the  average  to  represent  the  central 
tendency,  it  is  possible  to  use  either  of  two  other  meas- 
ures, the  mode  and  the  median.  The  mode  is  that 
quantity  which  occurs  must  frequently.  In  the  above 
case,  the  mode  with  advertisement  A  is  i,  for  that  is 
the  value  which  is  given  it  most  frequently.  With  B, 
likewise,  i  is  the  mode,  but  since  the  total  number  of 
times  I  occurs  with  B  is  less  than  with  A,  A  must  be 
ranked  higher.  With  C  it  is  3,  and  with  D,  4.  Con- 
sequently, if  we  use  the  mode  as  the  measure  of  the 
central  tendency,  we  obtain  exactly  the  same  order 
that  we  did  when  the  average  was  used. 

The  other  measurement  used  to  represent  the  central 
tendency  is  the  median.  If  the  entire  series  of  judgments 
is  arranged  in  order  from  highest  to  lowest,  the  value 
of  the  judgment  which  occupies  the  exact  mid-point 
of  the  series  is  called  the  median.    In  the  above  case 

(the  formula  is  median  equals  ^        j,  the  total  number 


74      ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 


ll 


of  judgments  was  i6i .  If  we  count  8i  in  either  direction, 
either  from  the  beginning,  or  the  end,  the  8ist  value 
will  be  the  median.  With  advertisement  A,  the  8ist 
value  will  lie  somewhere  in  2,  for  i  occurs  71  times. 
The  median  will  be,  then,  the  loth  value  in  2.  The  55 
choices  which  2  received  in  connection  with  this  adver- 
tisement may  be  thought  of  as  extending  between  2  and 
3.  The  first  is  considered  to  have  a  value  of  2:^,  the 
second  2^  and  the  last,  2^  or  3.  The  loth  value  in  2 
would  therefore  have  a  value  of  2H  or  2.182.  The  cen- 
tral tendency  as  determined  by  the  median  gives  the  same 
order  as  the  values  obtained  by  using  the  average  and 
the  mode,  A  being  first,  B  second,  C  third,  and  D  fourth. 

"The  following  .  .  .  characteristics  of  the  different 
measures  of  central  tendency  may  help  to  decide  which 
is  the  best  to  use  in  any  given  case : 

"The  crude  mode  is  die  most  easily  and  quickly  de- 
termined. It  is  not  so  reliable  a  measure  as  the  others. 
That  is,  the  actual  mode  obtained  from  a  given  number 
of  cases  will  not  be  so  near  the  true  mode  as  will  the 
actual  averages  to  the  true  average.  It  is  hardly  at  all 
influenced  by  extreme  measures  or  erroneous  measures. 
It  is  unambiguous  and  does  not  mislead  a  reader  into 
thinking  that  all  the  individual  measures  of  a  group 
are  very  closely  near  it. 

"The  median  is  more  easily  determined  than  the 
average.  It  is  not  so  precise  as  the  average,  is  very  little 
influenced  by  extreme  or  erroneous  measurements,  and 
is  unambiguous. 

"The  average  is  determined  more  precisely  than  the 
crude  mode  or  the  median  because  the  amount  of  every 
measure  plays  a  part  in  determining  it,  but  for  this  very 
reason  it  is  more  influenced  by  extreme  or  erroneous 
measures.  The  average  is  the  measure  in  common  use 
and  has  the  advantage  of  being  a  familiar  term,  and  at 
the  same  time  the  disadvantage  of  leading  untrained 


STATISTICAL  METHODS 


7S 


readers  to  think  that  the  abilities  of  which  it  is  the 
average  are  closely  clustered  about  it. 

"If  the  measures  of  an  individual  are  not  in  terms  of 
amount,  but  are  simply  a  series  ranked  in  relative  posi- 
tion, the  only  measures  of  central  tendency  available 
are  the  mode  and  median."  ^ 

In  addition  to  obtaining  the  central  tendency  of  a  set 
of  measurements,  however,  it  is  advisable  to  find,  in  addi- 
tion, a  measure  of  the  variability  of  the  measurements. 
This  shows  whether  the  subjects  are  well  agreed,  or 
whether  there  is  a  considerable  amount  of  disagreement 
in  their  judgments.  As  there  were  several  measurements 
of  the  central  tendency,  there  are  also  several  measure- 
ments of  the  variability  of  the  series  of  measurements. 

The  first  is  called  either  the  Average  Deviation 
(A.D.)  or  the  Mean  Variation  (M.V.).  To  obtain 
this,  the  average  is  subtracted  from  each  of  the  measure- 
ments which  went  to  make  up  the  average,  disregarding 
signs  and  the  results  added.  This  sum  is  then  divided 
by  the  number  of  terms.  In  the  case  given  above,  in 
connection  with  advertisement  A,  the  average  is  sub- 
tracted from  each  of  the  71  ones,  from  each  of  the  55 
twos,  from  each  of  the  25  threes,  and  from  each  of  the 
10  fours.  The  sum  obtained  by  adding  all  of  these 
values  is  divided  by  161  and  the  result  is  the  A.D.  It 
is  possible  to  use  the  same  short-cut  method  that  was 
described  to  determine  the  average.     It  works  as  follows : 


PosmoN 

Number  of  Choices 

I 

a 

$ 

4 

71 
55 

25 

10 

.84X  71  =  59-6 

.16X55=    8-8 
1.16X  25  =»  29.0 
2.16  X  10=  21.6 

Average    .     .     . 

1.84 

119.0 

Thoradike,  "  Mental  and  Social  Measurements,"  pages  38-39. 


r 


76      ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 


I    I 


The  sum  of  the  differences,  disregarding  sign,  is  119. 
The  A.D.  is  1 19/161,  or  .74.  The  average  deviation  may 
be  determined  in  the  same  way  by  subtracting  the  terms 
in  the  series  from  either  the  median  or  the  mode. 

Another  measurement  of  the  variability  of  a  series 
is  the  Mean  Square  Deviation  or  the  Standard  Devia- 
tion as  it  is  sometimes  called  and  which  is  usually  re- 
presented by  the  small  Greek  sigma  (<r).  The  formula 
is  S.D.  =  the  square  root  of  sum  of  the  differences 

squared  /  the  number  of  cases.    S.D.  =  xl—.    It  is  deter- 

mined,  in  the  case  of  advertisement  A,  as  follows.  The 
average  was  1.84.  Where  the  value  i  occurred,  the 
difference  is  .84.  The  square  of  this  is  approximately 
.7056.  I  occurred  71  times,  so  the  decimal  .7056  should 
be  added  together  71  times  or  multipHed  by  71.  Like- 
wise for  the  other  values,  as  will  be  shown  in  the  follow- 
ing table : 


Position 

NUMBEE 

D 

I 
3 

J 

4 

71 
55 
25 
10 

.84 

.16 

1. 16 

2.16 

•71  X  71  =  504 

•025X55=    138 
1-35    X  25  =  33.7 
4.67    X  10  =  46.7 

Average .     .     . 

I.&4 

142.18 

The  S.D.  is  the  square  root  of  142.18/161,  which  is  ap- 
proximately .94.  The  S.D.  is  usually  greater  numeri- 
cally than  the  A.D.  On  the  average,  for  results  which 
lie  along  the  normal  surface  of  frequency,  the  S.D.  is 
1. 25331  times  the  A.D.,  or  put  the  other  way  round, 
the  A.D.  is  .7979  S.D. 

A  third  measure  of  the  variability  of  a  series  is  called 
the  Semi-Interquartile-Range,  or  half  the  measure  be- 


STATISTICAL  METHODS 


77 


tween  the  25  percentile  measure  and  the  75  percentile 
measure.  It  is  half  the  distance  from  the  median  to  the 
beginning  of  the  series  and  half  the  distance  from  the 
median  to  the  end  of  the  series,  divided  by  2.  In  the 
case  of  advertisement  .4 ,  the  median  was  the  8ist  value. 
The  upper  quartile  would  be  then  the  41st  value,  and 
the  lower  quartile  would  be  the  121st  value.  To  show 
how  to  obtain  it,  the  table  is  given  again. 


Position 

Choices 

Position 

Choices 

I 
3 

71 

55 

3 

4 

25 

10 

The  41st  choice  has  a  value  of  i  plus.  It  is  i  plus 
41/70  or  1.585.  The  lower  quartile,  or  121st  choice,  is  2 
plus  50/54  or  2.926.  Half  the  difference  between  1.585 
and  2.926  is  .671. 

One  of  these  expressions  of  the  variability  of  the 
series  should  always  be  used  with  any  series  of  measure- 
ments where  it  can  be  applied.  Only  one,  however, 
need  be  given.  The  one  which  shall  be  used  is  a  matter 
of  practical  indifference,  much  depending  upon  the  ease 
of  computation. 

As  we  have  seen,  S.D.  expresses  the  amount  or  degree 
of  scatter  of  individual  variates  about  the  average.  The 
formula  S.D./V«  gives  the  standard  deviation  or  scatter 
of  the  numerous  values  of  the  average  derived  from  many 
experiments  like  the  one  mentioned  above.  It  can  like- 
wise be  shown  that  50  per  cent  of  these  various  possible 
averages  lie  within  the  limiting  values  which  are  greater 
or  less  than  the  average  of  these  averages  by  0.6745  S.D./ 
the  square  root  of  n.  This  expression,  plus  or  minus 
0.6745  S.D./  square  root  of  n,  is  known  as  the  probable 
error,  E,  of  the  average.    There  are  even  chances  that 


i 


78      ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

an  average  obtained  from  another  experiment  with  the 
same  material  will  lie  within  the  limits  of  average  plus 
or  minus  E.  Since  the  A.D.  is  approximately  .7979 
times  the  S.D.,  we  may  substitute  A.D.  for  S.D.  in  the 
above  formula,  making  it  read  approximately  0.8453 
A.D.  /  square  root  of  n. 

Using  these  formulae  to  test  the  validity  of  the  experi- 
ment mentioned  above,  we  find  the  following  condition 
to  exist : 


PosmoN 

A 

B 

c 

D 

X 
3 

3 

4 

71 

SS 

25 

10 

67 
41 
40 

13 

16 
42 

S6 
47 

7 

23 
40 
91 

Average     .     . 

1.84 

1.99 

2.78 

ZSi 

A.  D.     .    .    . 

•74 

.82 

.81 

•75 

E 

.049 

•OSS 

•OS3 

.050 

I 


These  figures  show  that  the  average  of  A  might  have 
risen  to  1.889  or  fallen  to  1.791  in  half  of  the  other  tests 
made  with  the  same  set  of  advertisements.  B  like- 
wise might  have  risen  to  2.045  or  fallen  to  1.935.  This 
means  that  with  further  tests,  the  order  of  A  and  B 
might  have  been  reversed  though  the  chances  are  better 
than  even  that  it  would  not.  C  and  D  are,  however, 
pretty  well  established  in  third  and  fourth  places  re- 
spectively. In  order  to  determine  how  many  tests 
would  have  been  necessary  to  establish  a  permanent 
ranking  for  A  and  B,  we  may  use  the  following  method. 
The  number  of  cases,  or  «,  does  not  affect  the  A.D. 
provided  the  distribution  is  normal,  so  we  may  assume 
that  further  tests  would  give  approximately  the  A.D.'s 
which  were  found  in  this  test.    The  thing  which  must 


STATISTICAL  METHODS 


79 


be  done,  then,  is  to  obtain  an  E  which  shall  be  less  than 
half  the  difference  between  the  averages  of  A  and  B. 
The  difference  in  the  averages  is  0.15.  Consequently 
an  E  of  .070  would  have  estabhshed  the  order.  The 
A.D.  is  approximately  constant,  so  the  change  must  be 
brought  about  by  increasing  the  value  of  n.  If  -^  — 
9.2,  n  =  85,  and  the  E  for  A  and  B  becomes  0.067  ^i^id 
0.075  respectively  and  the  lowest  value  for  A  1.907  and 
the  highest  value  for  B  1.915,  in  which  case  A  is  still 
in  first  place  and  B  in  second  place,  and  the  order  may 
be  said  to  be  established.  In  common  practice,  it  is 
considered  that  a  satisfactory  final  order  has  been  deter- 
mined when  the  averages  are  separated  by  amounts 
greater  than  3  E. 

In  making  several  tests  with  the  same  material,  it  is 
often  desirable  to  know  the  degree  of  similarity  or  dif- 
ference which  exists  in  the  results.  The  four  adver- 
tisements mentioned  above,  for  example,  had  appeared 
in  magazines,  and  the  number  of  inquiries  resulting 
from  each  was  known.  They  were  then  used  in  the 
laboratory  test.  The  idea  was  to  find  out  how  much 
alike  the  order  as  determined  by  the  two  kinds  of  tests 
would  be. 

The  mathematicians  have  figured  out  several  for- 
mulae which  may  be  used  as  a  measure  of  the  likeness 
or  differences  of  two  orders,  or  two  series  of  results. 
The  result,  which  is  called  the  coefficient  of  correlation, 
or  f,  ranges  in  value  from  plus  i  to  minus  i.  If  the  two 
series  are  exactly  alike,  the  result  of  solving  the  equa- 
tion is  -f-  I,  if  they  are  exactly  opposite,  it  is  —  i,  while 
if  there  is  simply  chance  agreement,  the  result  is  zero. 
One  very  common  formula  which  is  easily  handled  where 
the  series  are  not  too  long  is  the  following :  The  coeffi- 
cient of  correlation,  or  r,  =  i  —  [6  2  (^) /^(w^  —  i)]. 
It  so  happened  that  the  order  of  value  in  the  two  tests 
referred  to  above  was  the  same,  consequently,  r  =  -f  i.cx). 


^ 


80  .   ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

For  illustration,  some  of  the  possible  variations  will  be 
worked  out.  Let  us  suppose  the  order  as  determined  by 
the  business  test  was  A,  B,  C,  and  D  as  respectively  in 
places  I,  2,  3,  and  4.  Let  us  suppose  that  the  results 
of  the  laboratory  test  were  to  give  A  second  place,  B 
first,  C  fourth,  and  D  third.  Writing  them  in  perpen- 
dicular columns,  together  with  the  necessary  mathemati- 
cal computations,  the  following  is  obtained. 


Ad.  No. 

Rank  (i) 

Rank  (2) 

D> 

A 
B 
C 
D 

I 

3 

3 

4 

2 
I 

4 

3 

I 
I 

X 
X 

»  =  4.  «(«2  _  i)  =  5q 

4X6  =  24 

r  =  I  -  24/60  =  I  -  .4  =  plus  .6.  With  those  two 
orders,  the  coefl&cient  of  correlation  is  plus  .600.  If  we 
invert  one  order  as  compared  with  the  other,  the  fol- 
lowing will  result : 


Ad.  No. 

Rank  — I 

Rank— a 

DiF.  Squared 

A 
B 
C 

D 

I 
2 

3 
4 

4 

3 
2 
Z 

9 
I 

I 
9 

f  =  I  -  120/60  =    I  -  2  =  -  I.OO. 

20X6  =  120 

By  use  of  this  formula  or  others  which  have  been 
worked  out  to  obtain  the  coefficient  of  correlation,  it 
is  possible  to  obtain  an  exact  mathematical  expression 
of  the  degree  of  likeness  or  difference  of  two  measure- 
ments.   This  is  particularly  valuable  in  comparing  the 


STATISTICAL  METHODS 


81 


results  of  laboratory  tests  with  the  results  obtained  in 
actual  business. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  two  sets  of  figures  are 
not  directly  comparable,  yet  it  is  desirable  to  know 
whether  they  represent  the  same  tendency.  For  ex- 
ample, the  returns  from  two  different  magazines  might 
be  as  follows : 


iNQtnRTKS  FOR 

Quarter 

Half  Page 

Full  Page 

Magazine  A  .    .     . 
Magazine  B  .    .     . 

49 
63 

72 
lOI 

109 
143 

The  simplest  way  of  determining  this  point  is  to 
reduce  both  sets  of  figures  to  ratios,  calling  the  number 
of  inquiries  for  the  quarter  page,  i.oo,  and  reducing 
the  other  values  to  corresponding  terms.  When  this 
is  done,  the  following  table  is  obtained : 


Quarter 

Halt 

Full 

Magazine  A  .    .     . 
Magazine  B  .     .    . 

I.OO 

1.00 

1.46 
1.60 

2.22 
2.27 

This  method  of  considering  the  results  shows  that  the 
two  tendencies  are  very  similar.  Results  worked  out 
by  the  ratio  method  are  directly  comparable  and  show 
many  relations  which  could  be  determined  in  no  other 
simple  way. 


# 


i 


CHAPTER  Vm 

Attention 

Most,  if  not  all,  of  our  sense  organs  are  being  stimu- 
lated during  the  greater  part  of  our  lives.  The  result 
is  that  we  are  conscious  of  a  considerable  number  of 
things  at  the  same  time.  At  any  particular  instant 
some  one  sensation,  or  perception,  or  idea  somehow 
arouses  more  consciousness  than  any  of  the  rest.  This 
fact,  that  one  idea  is  selected  and  emphasized  in  con- 
sciousness, is  called  attention. 

In  order  to  understand  attention  with  any  degree  of 
thoroughness,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  its  nervous 
basis ;  namely,  what  is  going  on  in  the  nervous  system 
when  we  are  conscious  of  anything  or  are  attending  to 

anything.  . 

We  have  said  that  most  of  our  sense  organs  are  being 
stimtilated  all  of  the  time.  The  result  of  the  stimulation 
is  to  transfer  energy  from  the  outside  world  to  that 
part  of  the  nervous  system  which  is  especially  adapted 
to  receive  hnpressions.  The  energy  is  carried  in  the 
form  of  a  nerve  current  to  the  brain.  ^  The  cell  bodies 
of  the  neurones  which  are  on  the  outside  of  the  brain, 
called  the  cortex,  are  set  into  activity  by  the  nerve 
currents  which  come  into  them.  But  it  may  be  assumed 
that  not  all  are  set  into  equal  degrees  of  activity.  Some 
sense  organs  are  receiving  more  energy  from  the  outside 
world  and  consequently  have  more  to  pass  on  to  the 
cortical  ceUs.    It  is  possible,  then,  to  picture  the  entire 

83 


ATTENTION 


83 


cortex  of  the  cerebrum  as  active,  but  the  different  parts 
active  to  different  degrees.  We  assume  that  a  certain 
amount  of  brain  action  is  necessary  to  produce  con^ 
sciousness.  For  purposes  of  reference,  this  may  be 
called  the  zero  point.  It  is  probable  that  some  of  the 
nerve  impulses  are  not  strong  enough  to  produce  in  the 
cortex  even  this  zero  point  of  activity,  consequently 
they  do  not  arouse  consciousness.  The  region  which 
is  receiving  the  greatest  sum  total  of  nerve  energy  is 
more  active  than  any  of  the  other  regions.  This  maxi- 
mum of  activity  corresponds  to  attention.  Between 
the  maximum  region  and  the  zero  point  are  to  be  found 
all  degrees  of  moderate  action.  The  moderate  action 
corresponds  to  consciousness.  Such  a  description  being 
necessary  for  the  understanding  of  attention,  we  may 
now  analyze  attention  in  detail. 

The  first  problem  that  arises  is  concerned  with  what 
happens  to  that  idea,  sensation,  or  perception  which  is 
attended  to.  The  answer  has  occasioned  considerable 
psychological  controversy.  We  may,  however,  be  sure 
of  the  following  things : 

I.  Attention  makes  the  process  attended  to  more 
clear  and  distinct  in  consciousness.  Attention  is  often 
referred  to  as  the  focus  of  consciousness.  This  is  merely 
a  figurative  way  of  saying  the  process  attended  to  be- 
comes more  clear.  If  an  opera  glass  is  not  correctly 
focused,  everything  seen  through  it  appears  more  or 
less  blurred.  When  it  is  focused  properly,  the  objects 
seen  appear  to  be  clear,  distinct,  and  sharp-cut.  In  the 
same  way,  things  of  which  we  are  merely  conscious  tend 
to  be  more  or  less  indistinct,  whereas  things  we  are 
attending  to  are  clear,  sharp-cut,  and  well-defined.  The 
information,  then,  which  we  receive  from  an  object  at- 
tended to  is  very  much  more  definite  and  distinct  than 
the  information  received  from  the  object  of  which  we 
are  merely  conscious. 


h\ 


84      ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

2.  It  is  sometimes  stated  that  the  object  attended 
to  becomes  more  intense,  though  several  authorities 
disagree  with  this  statement.  At  any  rate,  it  seems 
safe  to  say  that  ordinarily  there  is  some  intensification 
of  the  process  due  to  attention. 

-i.  It  has  again  been  stated  that  the  process  attended 
to  stays  longer  in  consciousness  than  it  otherwise  would. 
This  conclusion  is  not  based  upon  experimental  evidence, 
but  on  introspection  pure  and  simple.  If  it  is  agreed, 
however,  that  attention  is  correlated  with  the  maximum 
amoimt  of  activity  in  the  brain,  it  would  seem  that 
owing  to  the  inertia  of  the  brain  cells,  a  process  attended 
to  should  endure  longer  than  one  which  does  not  arouse 
so  much  commotion  in  the  cortex. 

4.  Attention  aids  memory.  Should  the  object  not 
be  attended  to,  it  is  very  soon  forgotten,  if  remembered 
at  all.  Recognition,  an  essential  part  of  the  memory 
process,  is  impossible.  If  the  object  is  attended  to,  it 
will  be  much  more  likely  to  be  recalled  and  recognized 
at  some  later  date.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  retention  runs 
closely  parallel  to  the  degree  of  attention  at  the  time  the 
impression  is  received. 

5.  The  process  attended  to  rises  more  quickly  in 
consciousness  than  others  which  are  experienced  simul- 
taneously with  it.  "It  has  long  been  noticed,  when 
expectant  attention  is  concentrated  upon  one  of  two 
sensations,  that  the  other  one  is  apt  to  be  displaced 
from  consciousness  for  a  moment  and  to  appear  subse- 
quently; although  in  reality  the  two  may  have  been 
contemporaneous  events.  Thus,  to  use  the  stock  ex- 
ample of  the  books,  the  surgeon  would  sometimes  see 
the  blood  flow  from  the  arm  of  the  patient  whom  he 
was  bleeding,  before  he  saw  the  instrument  penetrate 
the  skin.  Similarly  the  smith  may  see  the  sparks  fly, 
before  he  sees  the  hammer  smite  the  iron,  etc."^    To  be 

*  James,  "Principles  of  Psych.,"  I :  page  409. 


ATTENTION 


85 


sure  the  amount  of  difference  is  not  very  great,  seldom 
being  more  than  o.i  second. 

6.  Attention  is  at  the  basis  of  every  voluntary  act. 
On  the  average,  the  greater  the  amount  of  attention, 
the  more  promptly  the  act  results.  This  has  been  m- 
dicated  in  the  experiments  on  reaction  times.  In  this 
test  the  individual  is  asked  to  make  a  responsive  move- 
ment as  soon  as  possible  after  a  stimulus  is  given.  When 
the  subject  is  not  warned,  the  reaction  takes  roughly 
twice  as  long  as  it  does  when  he  is  warned  that  it  is 
about  time  for  him  to  make  the  movement.  The  only 
effect  of  the  warning  signal  is  to  give  him  a  chance  to 
concentrate  his  attention  on  the  signal  or  on  the  response. 

Summing  up  the  material  so  far  presented,  it  may 
be  said  that  attention  is  really  the  front  door  through 
which  impressions  from  the  outside  world  enter  the 
mind.  Because  they  do  enter  by  the  front  door,  they 
are  received  with  more  consideration,  stay  longer,  and 
produce  more  of  an  effect  while  there. 

Two  other  preliminary  questions  must  be  settled 
before  we  ask  why  we  attend.  The  first  of  these  has  to 
do  with  what  is  called  technically  the  range  of  attention, 
or  the  number  of  things  that  we  can  attend  to  at  once. 
This  question  must  not  be  confused  with  another  similar 
one,  namely,  the  number  of  things  we  can  do  at  once. 
The  latter  is  purely  and  simply  a  matter  of  habit.  We 
can  do  as  many  things  at  once  as  we  have  smooth- 
running  habits,  which  do  not  conflict. 

It  has  been  stated  by  psychological  authority  that 
but  one  thing  can  be  attended  to  at  a  time.  Experi- 
ments then  go  on  to  prove  that  it  is  possible  to  grasp 
mentally  four  or  five  isolated  dots,  five  organized  groups 
of  five  each,  and  so  on,  so  that  the  actual  number  of 
things  which  can  be  attended  to  at  once  is  a  matter  of 
dispute.  It  seems  to  be  impossible  to  call  one  thing 
five  things  and  twenty-five  things  one  thing.    There 


f 


86       ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

are,  however,  two  ways  of  getting  around  the  difficulty. 
In  the  first  place,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  sense 
organs  and  the  brain  possess  an  inertia  of  their  own. 
It  takes  them  some  time  to  be  set  going  by  an  external 
stimulus,  and  the  nerve  activity  continues  for  some  little 
time  after  the  stimulus  is  removed.  This  is  due  to  the 
physical  principle  of  inertia.  So  that  even  if  the  dots 
are  seen  for  a  very  short  time,  -^  to  yJir  of  a  second,  the 
nerve  action  continues  for  some  little  time  afterwards, 
long  enough  at  any  rate  to  allow  the  different  dots  to 
be  attended  to,  each  by  a  separate  act  of  attention.  It 
may  be  concluded,  then,  that  only  one  thing,  either 
simple  or  complex,  can  be  attended  to  at  one  time. 

The  next  problem  is,  how  long  can  we  attend  to  this 
one  thing  without  change?  The  answer  usually  given 
is  that  we  can  attend  to  one  thing  for  three  to  six  seconds, 
and  then  attention  must  shift  to  some  other  object  or 
process.  It  may  be  objected  that  we  can  attend  to  one 
thing  for  a  long  period  of  time,  as  for  example,  a  lecture, 
a  book,  an  athletic  contest,  and  the  like.  A  little  analysis 
will  show  that,  while  from  one  standpoint  these  may 
be  considered  as  one  thing,  really  they  are  complex 
things,  being  made  up  of  a  large  number  of  simple  ele- 
ments. It  is  to  these  simple  things  that  we  attend,  one 
after  another.  Or  if  we  ever  do  attend  to  one  simple 
object  for  any  length  of  time,  it  is  because  we  are  regard- 
ing successively  its  different  phases. 

There  are  in  the  main  three  theories  to  account  for 
the  fluctuation  of  attention,  as  this  phenomenon  is 
called.  All  three  need  to  be  combined  to  give  a  really 
adequate  explanation.  It  is  probable  that  the  sense 
organs,  by  constant  exposure  to  the  stimulus,  become 
fatigued,  and  so  incapable  of  sending  a  maximum  amount 
of  nerve  current  to  the  brain.  Secondly,  the  cells  in 
the  brain  become  fatigued,  and  so  are  incapable  of  being 
aroused  to  a  full  degree  of  activity.    Tliis  results  in 


ATTENTION 


87 


" 


decreasing  the  total  amount  of  activity  in  that  portion 
of  the  cortex  and  so  causes  a  cessation  of  attention  to 
the  object.  Thirdly,  it  has  been  found  that  the  periods 
of  the  fluctuation  of  attention  are  of  about  the  same 
duration  and  coincide  with  certain  physiological  changes 
known  as  Traube-Hering  waves.  These  waves  are 
really  fluctuations  in  the  amount  of  blood  pressure. 
When  there  is  a  decrease  in  the  amount  of  blood  pres- 
sure, attention  wanes.  It  may  be  stated  in  addition, 
since  from  the  biological  standpoint  attention  is  merely 
an  adjusting  process,  that  once  the  adjustment  is  made, 
there  is  no  need  for  attention  to  concern  itself  with  that 
object  any  longer,  but  that  it  should  go  and  take  care 
of  some  other  process  which  needs  adjustment. 

The  next  point  that  demands  consideration  is  the 
problem  of  why  we  attend  to  certain  things  rather  than 
certain  others.  It  is  assumed  that  there  are  three  general 
sets  of  laws  which  determine  the  direction  of  attention. 
The  stimulus  itself,  because  of  intensity,  may  absolutely 
pull  attention  toward  itself.  Other  things  are  attended 
to  because  they  are  interesting;  while  still  others  receive 
our  attention  because  we  think  that  we  ought  to  attend 
to  them.     It  is  a  question  of  duty. 

I.  By  objective  factors  we  mean  those  characteristics 
of  the  stimulus  which  attract  attention  to  them  even  in 
spite^  of  effort.  These  characteristics  are  as  follows : 
position,  intensity,  size,  duration,  frequency,  change, 
and  motion. 

I.  Position.  —  It  is  comparatively  easy  to  deter- 
mine where  the  attention  will  first  alight  upon  a  page 
of  any  given  size  and  arrangement,  provided  the  con- 
ditions are  the  same  time  after  time.  But  for  the  reader 
of^  advertisements,  the  conditions  are  seldom  twice 
alike.  Whether  he  is  turning  the  pages  from  the  front 
towards  the  back  of  the  magazine  or  in  the  opposite 
direction  is  one  factor  which  has  a  determining  influence. 


u 

'  t 


SS      ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

Other  conditions,  such  as  size,  color,  intensity,  illustra- 
tions, interest  incentives  —  all  of  these  undoubtedly 
have  some  bearing  on  the  problem. 

The  investigation  of  the  preferred  position  on  the 
page  has  already  attracted  Gale.^  That  his  results  are 
more  or  less  untrustworthy  is  proved,  however,  by  the 
make-up  of  some  of  the  most  successful  advertisements 
which  are  nmning  in  the  current  magazines. 

Gale  found  that  the  left  side  of  the  page  had  a  con- 
siderable advantage  over  the  right  side.  As  regards 
the  horizontal  divisions  of  the  page,  he  found  that  the 
men  showed  a  preference  for  the  third  quarter,  or  that 
region  just  below  the  mid-line  of  the  page ;  whereas  the 
women  saw  the  second  quarter,  just  above  the  mid-line, 
with  greater  frequency.  Averaging  his  results  for  both 
men  and  women,  the  second  quarter  was  found  to  arrest 
the  attention  most  often,  the  third  next,  the  top  of  the 
page  third,  and  the  bottom  last. 

This  experiment  is  open  to  several  criticisms,  which 
all  eventually  reduce  to  one;  namely,  that  he  did  not 
endeavor  to  duplicate  advertising  conditions.  His 
letters  and  words  were  pasted  on  sheets  of  cardboard 
which  were  held  in  position  before  the  subjects.  In  a 
part  of  the  experiments,  the  apparatus  was  placed  in  a 
dark  room  and  the  subject  could  see  the  letters  and  words 
only  when  the  card  was  momentarily  illuminated  by 
a  spark  of  electricity.  In  the  other  part  of  the  experi- 
ment, the  subject  saw  the  words  only  when  a  diaphragm 
was  opened  momentarily.  In  neither  case  was  there 
anything  to  fix  the  boundaries  of  the  page  for  the  subject, 
who  could  only  look  straight  in  front  of  him  and  trust 
to  luck  to  obtain  a  glimpse  of  the  words.  The  proba- 
bility is,  therefore,  that  the  persons  would  look  at  that 
place  where  they  supposed  the  middle  of  the  page  to  be. 
This  would  explain  why  his  subjects  so  generally  saw 

>  Psy.  Studies  from  the  Univ.  of  Minnesota,  pages  51  ff. 


/    I 


« 


!! 


ATTENTION 


89 


the  words  just  above  or  below  the  middle  of  Jhe  page.  ( ( 
The  superiority  of  the  left  side  of  the  page  he  explains 
as  being  due  to  the  universal  tendency  to  begin  fixations 
in^  reading  at  that  position,  and  he  is  probably  correct.  \ 
His  experiment,  then,  does  not  duplicate  advertising 
conditions ;  and  his  conclusions  must  be  taken  with  the 
proverbial  grain  of  salt. 

Realizing  the  inadequacy  of  the  previous  tests,  it  was 
decided  to  test  the  question  under  conditions  which 
conformed  more  nearly  to  those  met  in  actual  adver- 
tising. 

The  material  for  the  experiment  was  prepared  as 
follows.  Ninety-two  cards  of  the  size  of  the  standard 
magazine  advertising  page  were  marked  off  into  rec- 
tangles of  larger  or  smaller  size  to  represent  the  different 
divisions  of  the  page.  In  the  center  of  each  rectangle 
was  mounted  a  small  capital  letter.  To  represent  the 
full  page,  the  cards  were  divided  into  fifteen  rectangles 
of  equal  size,  three  horizontally  and  five  vertically.  The 
eighth  page  was  made  up  of  two  rectangles  across  and 
four  up  and  down.  The  quarter  page  was  represented 
by  two  rectangles  across  and  two  up  and  down.  The 
half  page  was  considered  in  three  ways ;  first,  with  the 
horizontal  division  in  the  middle  of  the  page,  second 
with  the  perpendicular  division  in  the  middle  of  the 
page  with  letters  in  the  upper  left  corner  and  the  lower 
right  comer,  and  third  with  the  perpendicular  division 
with  letters  appearing  in  the  upper  right  and  lower  left 
comers. 

Care  was  taken  to  put  no  letters  which  looked  alike 
on  the  same  card,  and  on  different  cards  the  same  letters 
were  used  but  put  in  different  positions  so  that  any 
differences  of  intensity,  novelty,  familiarity,  and  the 
like  would  be  compensated  in  the  totals. 

These  cards  were  put  into  a  modified  book  and  shown 
to  the  subject  one  at  a  time.    The  modified  book  con- 


90      ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

sisted  of  a  drawing  board  on  which  was  placed  a  holder 
for  the  cards.  Over  the  holder  and  hiding  the  cards 
was  a  heavy  cover  which  swung  on  hinges.  This  corre- 
sponded indifferently  either  to  the  cover  of  the  book  or  to 
a  page  which  was  hiding  another  one  underneath.  Open- 
ing and  closing  it  allowed  the  exposure  of  the  card  under- 
neath for  any  desired  length  of  time.  It  was  thought 
that  this  method  approached  the  actual  advertising 
conditions  much  more  closely  than  instantaneous  light- 
ing with  an  electric  spark. 

Each  card  in  the  series  was  shown  for  approximately 
half  a  second,  and  the  subject  was  instructed  to  write 
down  all  the  letters  which  he  remembered  having  seen, 
in  the  order  in  which  they  came  into  his  consciousness. 
In  the  major  portion  of  the  experiment,  the  cover  of 
the  modified  book  was  turned  in  such  a  way  that  it 
represented  a  right-hand  page  seen  when  turning  the 
pages  from  front  towards  the  back  of  the  magazine. 
Other  tests  were  made,  however,  which  duplicated  the 
appearance  of  the  left-hand  page  when  going  in  the 
opposite  direction.  A  total  of  149  subjects  was  used 
in  the  course  of  the  experiment. 

RESULTS 

I.  The  Span  of  Attention. 

If  we  prepare  a  table  showing  the  percentage  of  times 
some  position  on  the  15-division  page  was  seen  first,  sec- 
ond, third,  fourth,  and  so  on,  and  then  do  the  same  thing 
for  the  other  page  divisions,  we  obtain  the  following : 


SE£N 

ISt 

3d 

3d 

4tb 

Sth 

6th 

7th 

Sth 

15  divisions 
8  divisions 
4  divisions 
2  divisions 

lOO.O 
lOO.O 

1 00.0 

lOO.O 

99.0 
95-8 
98.7 
96.6 

89.7 

837 
72.7 

S0.3 
55-8 

50.3 

30.1 
11.7 

16.3 
6.5 

3-3 
0.3 

0.9 
0.0 

i 


ATTENTION 


91 


t 


Under  the  conditions  of  the  experiment,  some  posi- 
tion on  the  page  is  practically  sure  of  being  seen.  With 
the  15-division  page,  some  second  place  is  seen  990  times 
out  of  1000,  a  third  place  897  times  out  of  a  thousand 
and  so  on.  Inverting  our  proposition,  we  find  that 
but  one  thing  on  the  page  is  seen  10  times  out  of  every 
thousand,  but  two  things  are  seen  103  times  out  of  a 
thousand,  only  three  things  are  seen  497  times  in  a 
thousand,  the  chances  growing  increasingly  less  with 
great  rapidity.  The  obvious  moral  is  that  if  a  thing  \| 
is  not  noticed  almost  immediately  it  has  a  very  poor ! 
chance  of  being  seen  at  all. 

Whether  the  card  is  divided  into  15,  8,  4,  or  2  parts 
affects  the  relative  number  of  times  that  some  position 
on  it  is  seen  either  second,  third,  fourth,  etc.  In  general, 
we  find,  as  we  might  expect  to,  that  the  more  there 
is  to  be  seen  the  more  we  see. 

If  we  now  throw  into  a  table  the  average  number  of 
letters  seen  for  each  of  the  page  divisions,  we  obtain  the 
following : 

Page  Ariiangem^nt  Average  Number  or 

Letters  Seen 

IS  divisions 3.88 

8  divisions 3.41 

4  divisions 3.22 

2  divisions 1.96 

This  table  shows  that  with  decreasing  complexity.  .  ^ 
of  the  page  there  is  a  steady  decrease  in  the  number  of  1  \  \ 
letters  seen.  The  maximum  span  of  attention  occurred 
with  the  page  divided  into  15  equal  parts,  the  eight- 
division  page  was  next,  the  quarter  page  next,  and  the 
half  page  last.  In  trying  to  explain  this,  two  factors  must 
be  taken  into  account.  First,  the  fact  that  there  were  / 
actually  more  letters  to  be  seen ;  and  secondly,  the  fact  ' 
that  the  letters  were  closer  together  on  the  more  com- 
plex page.    Both  of  these  factors  undoubtedly  have 


92       ADVERTISING  AND   ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 


ATTENTION 


93 


;   « 


k 


some  influence,  just  how  much  it  is  impossible  to  say. 
If,  however,  we  find  out  the  average  space  occupied  by 
each  letter,  obtaining  the  area  inclosed  by  the  straight 
lines  joining  the  outer  edges  of  the  outermost  letters, 
and  divide  this  by  the  number  of  letters  on  the  page, 
we  get  the  following  expression :  The  attention  range 
varies  approximately  inversely  as  the  sixth  root  of  the 
average  area  occupied  by  each  letter. 

2.  The  influence  of  cross  lines  between  letters  on  the 
span  of  attention. 

Since  it  is  a  common  belief  that  cross  lines  are  diffi- 
cult for  the  eye  to  traverse,  it  was  decided  to  test  the 
effect  of  such  lines  in  the  experiment.  If  it  is  difficult 
for  the  eyes  to  go  across  such  lines,  the  span  of  attention 
should  be  smaller  when  the  lines  are  present ;  if  they  make 
no  difference,  the  span  of  attention  should  be  the  same. 

In  preparing  the  material  for  the  experiment,  this 
question  was  borne  in  mind.  Consequently  half  of  the 
cards  were  prepared  with  cross  lines,  the  other  half 
without  them.  Working  out  the  averages  for  the  two 
kinds  of  cards,  we  found  that  there  was  a  difference  of 

II  two  tenths  of  one  per  cent  in  favor  of  the  cards  with 
/cross  lines.  This  difference  is  so  slight  that  it  is  ob- 
I  viously  of  no  value.  The  conclusion  is  that  cross  lines 
have  no  appreciable  effect  upon  the  range  of  attention. 
Whether  or  not  they  should  be  used  is  then  a  question, 
not  of  attention,  but  of  aesthetics. 

3.  The  attention  value  of  different  parts  of  the  page. 
A.  Page  of  15  divisions. 

We  now  turn  to  a  consideration  of  the  results  ob- 
tained from  the  cards  showing  15  divisions  and  repre- 
senting the  forward  turning  of  the  magazine  page.    Two 

,  tables  will  be  given  for  each  division  of  the  page,  one 
showing  the  number  of  times  each  position  on  the  page 

I  was  seen  first,  the  other  showing  the  total  number  of 
times  each  position  was  seen  at  all.    The  tables  are 


i 


I 


\ 


arranged  in  such  a  way  as  to  represent  in  miniature  the 
cards  which  were  used.  In  the  first  table,  for  example, 
we  show  that  the  upper  left-hand  comer  of  the  is-divi- 
sion  cards  was  seen  first  471  times ;  the  lower  right-hand 
comer  was  seen  first  twice. 

Table  Showing  the  Number  of  Times  each  Position  on  the  15- 

DivisiON  Page  was  Seen  First  i 


471 

10 

16 

497 

30 

23 

a 

55 

44 

38 

z 

73 

24 

IS 

0 

39 

19 

I 

2 

22 

S88 

77 

21 

686 

Above  Table  Reduced  to  Percentage  Values 


68.6 

i.S 

2.3 

72.4 

4.4 

3-4 

0.3 

8.1 

6.4 

4.1 

0.1 

10.6 

35 

2.2 

0.0 

5.7 

2.9 

0.1 

0.3 

3-3 

85.8 

11.3 

3-0 

lOO.I 

The  results  of  this  method  of  recording  the  figures 
are  so  obviously  and  strongly  in  favor  of  the  upper  left- 
hand  comer  of  the  page  that  they  evidently  do  not 
represent  the  relative  values  of  the  different  parts  of 
the  page.  However,  they  are  extremely  striking  in 
showing  where  the  eye  does  first  fall  upon  the  printed 
page  when  all  parts  of  the  page  have  an  approximately 
equal  interest  and  intensity  value. 

The  conclusion  to  be  drawn  from  this  method  of 
recording  the  results  is,  obviously,  that  the  upper  left- 
hand  comer  of  the  page  is  the  first  part  to  be  seen  in 
slightly  over  f  of  the  entire  number  of  tests,  while  the 
left  side  of  the  page  is  seen  first  in  almost  A  oi  the 
trials.  That  portion  of  the  page  just  above  the  middle 
is  seen  first  less  than  ys  of  the  times,  whereas  the  top 
is  seen  first  nearly  three  times  out  of  every  four.  These 
results  are  very  sharply  opposed  to  Gale's. 


/ 


J 


94       ADVERTISING  AND   ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

Since  the  gaze  ordinarily  wanders  over  a  page  some- 
what, not  only  the  first  thing  seen  has  value,  but  any- 
thing on  the  page  which  is  noticed.  A  table  showing 
the  total  number  of  times  each  position  on  the  15- 
division  page  was  seen,  follows : 

Table  Showing  the  Total  Number  of  Times  each  Position  on  the 
f  is-DivisiON  Page  was  Seen 


I 


487     429 

350 

1266 

153     131 

106 

390 

97            114 

87 

298 

SS              69 

60 

182 

42      28 

48 

118 

832     771 

651 

2254 

Above  Table 

GIVEN  IN  Percentages 

21.6     19.1 

iS-6 

56.3 

6.8     5.8 

4.7 

17.3 

4.3     S-i 

3.9 

13.3 

2.4      3.1 

2.7 

8.2 

1.9      1.2 

2.1 

5-2 

37-0 


34-3 


29.0 


100.3 


This  table,  consisting  as  it  does  of  2244  different 
cases,  may  lay  some  claim  to  probability.  Therefore, 
the  following  conclusions  should  hold  good  as  to  the 
approximate  number  of  times  each  position  on  the  right 
hand  page  when  turning  towards  the  back  of  the  maga- 
zine will  be  seen,  as  long  as  we  assimie  each  position  on  the 
page  to  have  an  equal  interest,  intensity  and  color  value. 
These  variations  will  be  considered  in  a  later  section. 

CONCLUSIONS 

I.  Any  way  of  figuring  the  results  makes  the  left 
side  of  the  page  the  best  from  the  standpoint  of  attract- 
ing attention.  The  middle  is  next,  and  the  right  is 
last.  This  condition  is  probably  due  to  the  habits 
transferred  from  the  reading  process,  where  the  natural 
tendency  is  to  begin  at  the  left  and  work  towards  the 


I 


ATTENTION 


95 


right.  As  an  outgrowth  of  this  habit,  we  have  a  second- 
ary tendency,  namely  that  the  stationary  eye  ordinarily 
sees  more  to  the  right  of  the  fixation  mark  than  it  does 
to  the  left.  This  means  that  an  initial  fixation  towards 
the  left  side  of  the  page  is  more  favorable  for  the  ap- 
prehension of  the  greatest  amount  of  material. 

2.  Any  way  of  figuring  the  results  gives  the  top  of  the 
page  a  higher  attention  value  than  any  of  the  other  hori- 
zontal divisions.  There  seems  to  be  no  ground  for  say- 
ing that  the  portion  just  above  the  middle  is  seen  most 
frequently,  for  any  method  of  working  out  the  results 
shows  that  it  has  only  one  fourth  to  one  fifth  of  the 
attention  value  of  the  region  just  above  it.  This  tend- 
ency can  be  explained  in  part  at  least  by  our  reading 
habits,  for  the  usual  method  is  to  start  at  the  top  and 
work  down  line  by  line. 

3.  In  general,  the  eye  tends  to  fall  first  upon  the 
upper  left-hand  corner  of  the  page,  then  to  run  across 
the  top.  From  there  its  course  is  slightly  more  erratic. 
It  swings  back,  either  to  the  column  just  under  the  top 
or  directly  to  the  middle  of  the  page,  seldom  going 
down  to  the  bottom,  but  wandering  back  and  forth 
about  the  geometrical  center. 

B.  Restdts  with  the  page  divided  into  8  equal  parts. 

Table  Showing  the  Number  of  Times  Some  Portion  of  the  8-Divi- 

siON  Page  was  Seen  First 


M 


] 


277 

21 

298 

13 

5 

18 

3 

I 

4 

4 

0 

4 

297 

27 

324 

Previous  Table  Reduced  to  Percentages 

85-5  6.5 

4.1  i-S 
0.9  0.3 

1.2  0.0 


91.7 


8.3 


92.0 
5.6 
1.2 
1.2 


lOO.O 


9 


Wf' 


96       ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

Table  Showing  the  Total  Number  of  Times  each  Part  op  the 

8-DivisiON  Page  was  Seen 


287 
202 

55 
21 


256 
210 

79 

43 


565 


S88 


543 
412 

134 
64 


"53 


Above  Table  Reduced  to  Percentages 


25.0 

17.5 
4.8 
1.8 


22.3 

18.3 

6.9 

3.7 


49-1  Si-2 


47.3 
35.8 
11.7 

5-5 


100.3 


CONCLUSIONS 


^  I.  The  general  outcome  of  these  results  is  very 
siinilar  to  those  previously  discussed  for  the  page  di- 
vided into  1 5  equal  parts.  The  top  of  the  page  is  con- 
siderably better  than  the  bottom,  showing  a  steady  and 
consistent  decrease  from  top  to  bottom. 

^  2.  When  we  consider  the  number  of  times  some  posi- 
tion on  the  page  was  seen  first,  we  find  theJeft_side-ol- 
the  page  to  be  much  better  than  the  right.  Consider- 
ing the  total  number  of  times  some  position  was  seen; 
we  find  that  the  right  side  is  very  slightly  better  than 
the  left,  owing  to  the  additional  number  of  times  it  was 
seen  second,  third,  etc.  It  is  probable  that  the  left  side 
of  the  page  is  somewhat  better  than  the  right,  however, 
since  it  has  a  higher  initial  attention  value. 

The  upper  left-hand  comer  was  again  the  best  place 
on  the  page.  The  moral  which  the  user  of  the  eighth- 
page  advertisements  could  draw  from  these  figures  is 
that  he  should  by  all  means  secure  the  upper  part  of  the 
page  for  his  advertisements,  and  preferably  the  left 
side  of  the  page.  Anything  in  the  lower  half  of  the  page 
is  fortunate  to  be  noticed  at  all,  and,  to  bring  any  results, 
must  be  of  superior  excellence. 

C.  Results  with  the  page  divided  into  four  equal  parts. 


i 


ATTENTION 


97 


Table  Showing  the  Number  of  Times  each  Position  on  the 
4-D1VIS10N  Page  was  Seen  First 


460 
73 


22 
II 


482 
84 


566 


533  ZS 

Reduction  to  Percentages 

81. 1  3.9 

12.9  1.9 


94.0 


5.8 


85.0 
14.8 


99.8 


Table  Showing  the  Total  Number  of  Times  each  Position  on  the 

4-D1VIS10N  Page  was  Seen 


551 
351 


467 
28s 


902 


752 


1018 
636 


1654 
Reduction  to  Percentages 


33.3 
21.2 


28.2 
17.2 


61.S 
38.4 


99.9 


54*fi  45-4 

These  results  show  almost  the  same  thing  as  those 
considered  before :  namely,  the  left  side  of  die  page  is 
better  than  the  right ;  the  top  is  better  than  the  bottom ; 
the  best  place  of  all  is  the  upper  left-hand  comer.  Con- 
sequently, the  selfsame  moral  holds  for  the  quarter 
page  division  which  held  for  the  eighth. 

D.  Results  with  the  page  divided  into  2  equal  parts. 

I.   The  horizontal  division  of  the  page. 

Table  Showing  the  Number  of  Times  each  Position  on  the 

2-DivisiON  Page  was  Seen  First 

No.  OF  Times  Percentages 

693  85.5 

117  14.S 


810 


lOO.O 


I  . 


I  • 


Table  Showing  the  Total  Number  of  Times  each  Position  on  the 

2-DivisioN  Page  was  Seen 

No.  or  Times  Percentages 

803  50.4 

791  49-6 


1594 


lOO.O 


I 


98      ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

CONCLUSION 

Any  way  of  figuring  the  results  makes  the  top  of  the 

page  better  than  the  bottom,  but  not  to  such  an  extent 

^.  .       as  was  the  case  with  the  eighth-  and  quarter-page  divi- 

J  1       sions.    The  eye  starts  at  the  top  and  ahnost  invariably 

works  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  page. 

2.  The  perpendicular  division  of  the  half  page  with 
letters  in  the  upper  left-  and  lower  right-hand  comers. 

Table  Showing  the  Number  of  Times  each  Position  on  the 
2-DivisiON  Page  was  seen  First 


/ 


No.  or  Times 

431 

28 


Pescentages 

94.0 


6.0 


Table  Showing  the  Total  Number  of  Times  each  Position  on  the 

2- Division  Page  was  Seen 


No.  or  Times 

448 


Pescentages 

50.5 

495 


These  tables  indicate  that  the  left  side  of  the  page  and 
the  top  are  best. 

3.  The  perpendicular  division  of  the  half  page  with 
letters  in  the  upper  right-  and  lower  left-hand  corners. 

Table  Showing  the  Number  of  Times  each  Position  on  the 
2-DivisioN  Page  was  seen  First 


No.  OF  Times 

137 
318 


Percentages 

30-0 
70.0 


Table  Showing  the  Total  Number  of  Times  each  Position  on  the 

2-DrvisioN  Page  was  Seen 


No.  or  Times 
441 
454 


Percentages 

49-2 
50.8 


'I 


This  table  shows  the  left  side  of  the  page  to  be  better 
than  the  right.  But,  oddly  enough,  the  bottom  has  a 
higher  attention  value  than  the  top.    This  seems  to 


\ 


ATTENTION 


99 


indicate  that  the  left-hand  factor  of  the  complex  is 
stronger  than  that  which  influences  one  to  begin  at  the 
top.  The  eye  starts  at  the  lower  left-hand  corner  and 
almost  invariably  goes  from  there  to  the  upper  right. 

E.  Results  obtained  from  turning  the  page  in  the 
opposite  direction. 

Before  finishing  the  experiment  32  subjects  were 
tested  with  the  apparatus  arranged  in  such  a  way  that 
it  represented  the  appearance  of  the  left-hand  page  as 
seen  by  turning  from  the  back  towards  the  front  of  the 
magazine.  The  results  with  the  page  of  15^  divisions 
differ  in  but  one  respect  from  those  obtained  in  turning 
the  page  in  the  opposite  direction.  These  results  show 
the  center  of  the  page  considering  the  perpendicular 
divisions  to  have  a  higher  attention  value  than  any 
other  portion,  the  left  being  next  and  the  right  last. 
The  percentage  values  are  given  below. 


Lett 

33-0 


Middle 
35.8 


Right 
31.2 


Furthermore,  the  results  obtained  from  the  quarter- 
and  half-page  divisions  differ  in  no  important  particular 
from  those  obtained  in  turning  the  page  in  the  opposite 
direction.  There  is,  throughout,  a  slightly  higher  value 
for  the  right  side  of  the  page,  though  the  left  is  still 
better  than  the  right.  Nothing  else  of  any  particular 
importance  appears. 

ATTENTION  VALUE  OF  RIGHT  AND  LEFT  PAGES 

A  variation  of  the  experiment  testing  the  attention 
value  of  different  parts  of  the  page  was  performed  as 
follows:  A  dummy  was  constructed  consisting  of  26 
pages  of  typical  advertisements  cut  from  recent  maga- 
zines. It  contained  16  full-page,  1 2  half-page,  1 7  quarter- 
page  and  14  eighth-page  advertisements.  The  subjects, 
47  of  whom  were  used  in  the  investigation,  were  seated 


M^ 


loo     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 


ATTENTION 


lOI 


in  a  chair,  and  the  experimenter,  standing  about  three 
feet  away,  exposed  the  advertisements  for  a  fraction  of 
a  second  by  opening  the  dummy.  The  subject  then 
wrote  down  all  that  he  had  seen  in  the  order  in  which 
he  had  seen  it.  The  total  credits  received  by  each 
of  the  26  pages  were  added  together  to  give  the  atten- 
tion values  of  the  various  parts  of  the  pages.  The  results 
follow. 

It  was  found  that  the  right-hand  page  had  a  consider- 
ably higher  attention  value,  the  credits  bemg  respec- 
tively 1427  and  937  or  100  per  cent  to  65  per  cent. 

Considering  the  upper  and  lower  halves  of  each  page, 
it  was  found  that  the  upper  half  had  a  considerable 
advantage  with  both  the  right-  and  left-hand  pages. 
This  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  table : 


Upper  Halp 

Lower  Half 

Right    

Left 

1020 
608 

407 
329 

Total 

1628 

736 

It  is  seen  from  the  table  that  the  upper  half  of  the 
page  has  more  than  twice  the  attention  value  of  the 
lower  half. 

With  the  quarter-pages,  the  following  figures  were 
obtained : 


Right  Page 

Left  Page 

Total 

Upper  quarter  .     .     . 
Upper  middle    .     .    . 
Lower  middle    .    .    . 
Bottom 

603 
417 
262 
145 

350 
256 
177 

152 

953 

657 

439 
297 

This  table  indicates  that  the  upper  quarter  is  very  much 
better  as  regards  attention  value  than  any  of  the  others. 
There  is  a  constant  and  steady  decrease  in  value  from  the 
top  of  the  page  to  the  bottom.  In  fact,  the  figures  show 
that  the  upper  quarter  is  approximately  ^  better  than  the 
one  just  under  it,  that  the  upper  middle  quarter  is  approx- 
imately J  better  than  the  one  just  under  it,  and  so  on, 
going  down  by  thirds  until  the  bottom  quarter  is  reached. 

Regarding  the  attention  value  of  newspaper  pages, 
few  data  are  at  hand.  However,  as  a  by-product  of  an 
experiment  on  the  memory  value  of  newspaper  adver- 
tisements, it  was  found  that  the  position  on  the  page 
which  was  first  seen  depended  very  largely  upon  whether 
the  paper  was  held  in  the  hands  or  laid  upon  a  table. 
In  the  former  case,  the  top  of  the  page  had  a  much 
greater  attention  value,  while  in  the  latter  case,  where  the 
paper  was  placed  upon  a  table,  the  bottom  of  the  page 
was  found  to  have  a  greater  attention  value  than  the  top. 

The  conclusions  to  be  derived  from  these  experi- 
ments are  as  follows : 

1.  Considering  the  perpendicular  divisions  of  the 
page,  the  top  has  the  greatest  attention  value,  the  bot- 
tom the  smallest,  with  a  steady  gradation  between  them. 

2.  Regarding  the  horizontal  divisions  of  the  page, 
the  outside  edge  has  the  highest  attention  value,  prob- 
ably for  the  reason  that  the  inside  edges  are  partially 
hidden  by  the  bending  of  the  pages,  in  the  standard 
magazine.  On  an  entirely  flat  surface,  the  left  side 
has  a  much  greater  attention  value  than  the  right. 

3.  The  upper  outside  comer  of  the  page  has  the 
greatest  attention  value  of  any  part  and  should,  there- 
fore, be  the  position  occupied  by  the  part  of  the  adver- 
tisement which  is  devised  to  catch  the  attention.  Pro- 
vided interest  is  aroused,  the  remaining  parts  of  the 
advertisement  should  lead  the  eye  of  the  reader  by 
easy  stages  to  that  part  which  will  induce  the  action. 


I02     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 


I 


4.  The  right-hand  page  has  a  considerably  greater 
attention  value  than  the  left. 

Closely  related  to  the  problem  of  securing  the  position 
on  the  page  which  has  the  highest  attention  value  is  the 
one  of  the  most  satisfactory  places  in  the  advertising 
section.  In  the  standard  publications,  the  positions 
which  are  most  likely  to  be  seen  are  undoubtedly  the 
preferred  positions,  the  back  cover,  the  inside  of  the 
back  and  front  cover,  the  pages  facing  the  reading  mat- 
ter, the  page  facing  the  table  of  contents,  and  so  on. 
The  advertisements  in  the  body  of  the  advertising 
section  have  less  chance  of  being  seen  by  the  casual 
reader.  The  protest  of  the  advertisers  who  were  sub- 
merged in  the  middle  of  the  section  have  caused  certain 
magazines  to  alter  their  form  of  arrangement  in  such  a 
way  as  to  allow  the  mixing  of  advertisements  with  the 
reading  matter.  This  custom  is  supposed  to  give  each 
advertisement  a  much  greater  attention  value.  That 
it  does  so  is  a  mere  matter  of  common  sense,  but  whether 
the  procedure  is  satisfactory  from  the  standpoint  of 
returns  is  a  debated  matter.  For  successful  advertising 
consists  of  much  besides  the  gaining  of  attention.  To 
be  adequate,  the  advertisement  must  gain  favorable 
attention,  must  be  remembered,  and  must  lead  to  action. 

The  efficiency  of  the  "next  reading"  advertisements 
has  been  investigated  by  Scott.^  He  sent  out  the  fol- 
lowing letter  to  a  large  number  of  advertisers  and  agents. 

"Northwestern  University, 

"August  23. 
"Dear  Sir: 

"  Certain  influential  manufacturers  with  national  dis- 
tribution are  convinced  that  an  advertisement  placed 
next  to  reading  matter  (such  as  an  interesting  story)  is 
placed  in  a  preferred  position. 

^  Scott,  W.  D.,  Advertising  and  Selling,  January,  1916. 


ATTENTION 


103 


"  Other  manufacturers  prefer  to  have  their  advertise- 
ment located  in  the  section  of  the  publication  set  aside 
for  advertisements.  Their  conviction  is  based  on  the 
theory  that  good  reading  matter  and  good  advertising 
matter  on  the  same  page  conflict. 

"  Both  parties  to  the  dispute  seem  to  base  their  faith 
upon  opinion  rather  than  upon  fact.  The  question  is 
one  of  such  great  importance  to  the  science  of  advertis- 
ing that  I  feel  justified  in  asking  for  your  cooperation 
in  an  attempt  to  secure  the  truth. 

"  I.  Do  you  know  of  any  evidence  (facts  and  not 
opinions)  that  advertising  next  to  reading  matter  is  of 
greater  value  to  the  advertiser  than  advertising  space 
massed  at  the  two  ends  of  the  magazine  ? 

"2.  Have  you  any  facts  to  show  the  contrary  to  be 
true  ?    Or 

"  3 .  Have  you  data  to  prove  that  the  matter  of  location 
in  no  way  affects  the  power  of  the  advertisement  to  in- 
fluence the  reader? 

"  If  you  have  such  evidence,  and  would  intrust  me  with 
it,  I  assure  you  that  it  will  be  used  in  a  manner  entirely 
satisfactory  to  you. 

"A  letter  similar  to  this  is  being  sent  to  some  of  the 
leading  advertisers  in  America.  If  you  so  desire  I  will 
report  to  you  an  analysis  of  the  answers,  so  far  as  is 
consistent  with  the  confidential  nature  of  the  replies. 

"For  your  convenience  a  self -directed  envelope  is  en- 
closed for  reply. 

"Walter  Dill  Scott." 

"  Replies  were  received  from  five  hundred  eighty  ad- 
vertisers and  from  one  hundred  ninety-six  agencies.  In 
some  instances  several  members  of  the  firm  sent  separate 
answers.  Each  of  these  is  listed  as  an  independent 
reply,  and  the  number  of  replies  from  each  firm  is  noted 
in  the  list  by  a  figure  after  the  firm  name. 


l 


I 


I04     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

''Of  the  580  advertisers,  34,  or  almost  6  per  cent, 
present  facts  to  prove  that  advertising  space  in  the 
segregated  advertising  sections  is  of  more  value  than 
space  next  to  reading  matter. 

"  Of  the  580  advertisers,  60,  or  almost  10  per  cent, 
present  facts  to  prove  that  space  next  to  reading  matter 
is  more  valuable  than  space  in  the  segregated  advertis- 
ing sections. 

"  Of  the  580  advertisers,  54,  or  a  little  less  than  10  per 
cent,  present  no  facts,  but  express  the  opinion  that 
space  in  the  segregated  advertising  sections  is  more 
valuable  than  space  next  to  reading  matter. 

"Of  the  580  advertisers,  131,  or  a  little  over  22  per 
cent,  present  no  facts,  but  express  the  opinion  that 
space  next  to  reading  matter  is  superior  to  that  in 
segregated  advertising  sections. 

"  Of  the  580  firms,  301,  or  almost  52  per  cent,  assert 
that  there  is  no  difference  in  the  value  of  space  in  the 
two  classes  of  magazines;  that  they  are  undecided  in 
their  opinion ;  or  fail  to  include  in  their  reply  any  facts 
or  expression  of  opinion  bearing  on  the  topic. 

"Of  the  196  advertising  agency  respondents,  12,  or  a 
little  over  6  per  cent,  present  facts  to  prove  that  space 
in  the  segregated  advertising  sections  is  more  valuable 
than  space  next  to  reading  matter. 

"  Of  the  196  advertising  agency  respondents,  27,  or  a 
little  less  than  14  per  cent,  present  facts  to  prove  that 
space  next  to  reading  matter  is  more  valuable  than  space 
in  the  segregated  advertising  sections. 

"Of  the  196  agency  respondents,  9,  or  a  little  less 
than^  5  per  cent,  present  no  facts,  but  express  the 
opinion  that  space  in  the  segregated  advertising  sec- 
tions is  of  more  value  than  space  next  to  reading 
matter. 

"  Of  the  196  agency  respondents,  54,  or  28  per  cent, 
present  no  facts,  but  express  the  opinion  that  space 


ATTENTION 


los 


I 


next  to  reading  matter  is  more  valuable  than  space  in 
segregated  advertising  sections. 

"  Of  the  196  agency  respondents,  99,  or  almost  51  per 
cent,  present  no  facts,  but  express  the  opinion  that  there 
is  no  difference  in  value  between  space  in  segregated  and 
next-to-reading  matter;  that  their  evidence  is  not  con- 
clusive ;  or  they  present  neither  facts  nor  opinions. 

"  Of  the  196  agency  respondents,  5  present  data  from 
one  group  of  clients  indicating  the  superiority  of  segre- 
gated space,  and  from  another  group  of  clients  indicating 
the  superiority  of  space  next  to  reading  matter.  These 
five  firms  are,  of  course,  included  in  both  the  6  per  cent 
and  the  14  per  cent  as  presented  above. 


Facts 

FOR 

Stand- 
ards 

Facts 

FOR 

Flats 

Opinions 

FOR 

Standards 

Opinions 

FOR 

Flats 

Un- 
decided 

Total 

Advertisers     . 
Agencies    .    . 

34(6  %) 
12(6  %) 

60(10  %) 
27(14  %) 

54(10  %) 
9(  S  %) 

131(22%) 
54(28  %) 

301(52%) 
99(51  %) 

580 
201* 

Total     .     .     . 

46 

87 

63 

185 

400 

781 

Total  per  cent 

6% 

II  % 

8% 

24% 

52% 

*  The  196  advertisers  here  taindated  as  201,  (w  5  presented  data  on  both 
sides  of  the  debate. 

"  A  study  of  these  776  replies  leaves  one  with  certain 
very  definite  convictions : 

"  First :  For  certain  classes  of  goods  and  under  certain 
conditions  there  is  a  clear  difference  in  the  value  of  space 
in  segregated  advertising  sections  and  space  next  to 
reading  matter.  For  schools,  books,  railroads,  resorts, 
and  investments,  space  in  segregated  sections  is  more 
valuable  than  space  next  to  reading  matter.  Space 
next  to  reading  matter  is  more  valuable  than  space  in 
the  segregated  advertising  sections  for  advertisements 
of  silk  if  the  advertisement  is  placed  next  to  an  article 


Ii 


I 


io6     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

on  dresses  or  internal  household  decorations ;  for  adver- 
tisements of  seeds,  if  placed  next  to  an  article  on  garden- 
ing; for  advertisements  of  almost  any  class  of  goods 
if  placed  next  to  an  article  dealing  with  the  use  of  the 
goods  advertised. 

"  Second :  Space  in  some  standard  magazines  is  more 
valuable  than  space  in  certain  flat  magazines  for  almost 
any  class  of  goods ;  but  space  in  some  flat  magazines  is 
more  valuable  than  space  in  certain  standard  magazines 
for  almost  any  class  of  advertising. 

"  Third :  The  conflicting  evidence  in  the  data  and  in 
the  opinions  presented  by  the  experts,  and  the  absence 
of  conviction  on  the  part  of  so  many  of  them,  make  it 
evident  that  segregated  vs.  next-to-reading-matter  is 
not  the  controlling  factor  in  value  of  advertising  space. 
The  quantity  and  quality  of  the  circulation,  the  respon- 
siveness developed  in  the  readers,  and  other  contributing 
factors,  must  be  considered  in  each  instance  before  any 
definite  conclusion  can  be  reached  as  to  the  value  to 
advertising  space  in  any  particular  magazine." 

2.  It  is  a  commonplace  of  experience  that  we  attend 
to  intense  stimuli.  A  flash  of  lightning,  the  sound  of  a 
telephone  bell,  the  sting  of  a  bee,  all  receive  very  prompt 
consideration.  In  the  nature  of  the  case,  intense 
stimuli  must  receive  attention.  For  the  stimulus,  be- 
cause of  its  very  intensity,  floods  a  certain  part  of  the 
cortex  of  the  cerebrum  with  nerve  energy,  making  it 
thus  much  more  active  than  any  other  portion  of  the 
brain  could  be. 

3.  Large  objects  compel  our  attention  for  exactly 
the  same  reason  that  intense  stimuli  do.  The  reason  is 
simply  because  a  large  stimulus  gives  rise  to  a  greater 
amount  of  nerve  energy  than  a  smaller  one  does,  thereby 
causing  a  greater  degree  of  activity  in  the  region  of  the 
brain  to  which  it  goes  than  is  taking  place  in  any  other 
region. 


ATTENTION 


107 


As  subdivisions  under  size  are  to  be  considered  such 
principles  as  isolation  and  contrast.  By  contrast,  we 
mean  simply  that  two  things  are  put  together  in  such 
a  way  as  to  emphasize  each  other.  The  effectiveness 
of  the  device  is  due  to  the  particular  structure  of  our 
sense  organs.  Isolation  is  effective  for  two  reasons. 
Being  taken  out  of  its  customary  relations,  the  object 
stands  forth  more  clearly  and  distinctly  than  it  other- 
wise would.  The  object  is  also  given  an  emphasis  which 
would  otherwise  be  lacking,  for  there  are  no  other  things 
in  the  neighborhood  which  are  also  tending  to  get^into 
the  focus  of  consciousness. 

To  investigate  the  effect  of  the  size  of  a  stimulus,  a 
series  of  cards  was  prepared  similar  to  those  used  in 
testing  the  attention  value  of  position  on  the  page. 
Eight  colors ;  red,  orange,  yellow,  green,  blue,  violet,  gray 
and  black  were  used.  In  the  first  series  four  different 
colors  were  mounted  on  each  card  in  the  same  way  that 
the  four  letters  were  placed  in  the  previous  test.  Three 
other  cards  were  made  so  that  each  color  appeared  in 
turn  in  each  position.  This  was  done  to  avoid  the  effect 
of  the  position  of  the  color  on  the  card.  The  entire 
series  B  showed  each  color,  in  a  square  one  inch  on  a 
side,  in  each  position  on  the  card.  In  this  way,  each 
color  had  an  equal  chance  with  every  other  color  of 
being  seen.  In  series  C,  one  color  on  each  card  was 
increased  to  1.5  inches  on  a  side  and  appeared  succes- 
sively in  each  of  the  four  positions.  In  this  way,  larger 
bits  of  red,  yellow,  green,  and  blue,  were  shown  in  each 
position.  In  series  D,  the  size  of  one  color  was  increased 
to  two  inches  by  two  inches  and  in  series  E  to  three 
inches  square.  In  series  C,  D,  and  E  the  other  three 
colors  remained  a  constant  size,  one  inch  square.  In  the 
whole  experiment,  slightly  over  300  persons-were  ex- 
perimented upon.  The  method  of  procedure  was 
exactly  like  that  employed  in  investigating  the  attention 


i 


io8     ADVERTISING  AND   ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

value  of  different  parts  of  the  page.  The  number  of 
times  the  color  was  seen  first  was  used  as  the  measure 
of  the  attention  value,  for  the  point  involved  was,  what 
color  will  catch  the  eye  first,  the  larger  ones  or  the 
smaller  ones  ? 

The  result  shows  that  the  size  of  the  color  had  a  definite 
influence  upon  the  number  of  times  it  was  seen  first. 
The  table  given  below  shows  the  outcome.  In  series  B, 
the  average  number  of  times  the  colors  one  inch  square 
were  seen  first  is  given  after  having  been  reduced  to 
ratios.  In  series  C,  the  ratio  of  the  number  of  times 
the  color  1.5  inches  square  was  seen  first  is  given  and 
likewise  for  D  and  E. 

The  Attention  Value  of  Size 


Size 

Men 

Women 

Both 

IXi 

1.5X1.5 
2X2 

3X3 

I.OO 
1.68 
1.91 
2.48 

I.OO 

1.85 
2. II 

293 

I.OO 

1.78 
2.05 
2.74 

i 


This  table  shows  that  with  an  increase  of  size  of  the 
stimulus,  there  is  an  increase  of  attention  value.  The 
curve,  as  shown  in  Fig.  IV,  does  not  follow  a  root  or 
power  curve,  increasing  too  rapidly  at  first  and  too 
slowly  afterwards.  But  it  does  show  that  the  larger 
the  object  is,  within  the  limits  of  the  experiment,  the 
more  likely  it  is  to  catch  the  eye. 

The  table  furthermore  shows  that  the  women  were 
somewhat  more  influenced  by  increase  of  size  than  the 
men  were. 

Not  only  are  these  facts  brought  out  by  the  investi- 
gation, but  it  was  also  determined  that  the  small  colors 
on  the  same  cards  with  the  larger  ones  lost  in  attention 


ATTENTION 


,1 


4- 


8- 


109 


WOMEN 

MEN 

BOTH 


Fig.  IV.  —  Showing  the  attention  value  of  size.    The  units  of  size  are  plotted 
on  the  horizontal  line,  the  attention  value  on  the  vertical. 

value  and  decreased  in  effectiveness  tlieJarger  the  other 
color  was.    This  is  brought  out  in  the  following  table : 


Size  of  La&ge 
Color 

Ai'iKNTioN  Value  of  Small  Color 

Men 

Women 

Both 

iXi 

1.SX1.5 
2X2 

3X3 

I.OO 

•795 
•713 
•SSO  , 

I.OO 

.710 
.60s 
.302 

I.OO 

•745 
.652 
411 

It  is  possible  that  a  fairer  measure  of  the  attention 
value  of  size  would  be  made  by  taking  this  last  factor 
into  account  and  instead  of  establishing  the  ratios  in 
terms  of  series  B,  to  use  as  the  basis  the  attention  value 
of  the  small  colors  appearing  on  the  same  cards  with  the 
larger  one.    This  is  done  in  the  table  on  the  next  page. 

This  way  of  considering  the  matter  shows  that  the 
attention  value  of  size  varies  almost  directly  with  the 
size,  or  more  accurately,  as  the  1.17  root  of  the  area, 
except  in  the  case  of  the  C  series.    The  experiment 


I 


I 


no     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

demonstrates  that  size  is  an  influential  factor  in  two 
ways.  In  the  first  place,  sheer  size  pulls  attention  to- 
wards itself.  In  the  second  place,  it  distracts  attention 
from  the  neighboring  objects.  The  first  table  may  be 
said  to  show  the  effect  of  size  in  isolation,  the  second  the 
effect  of  large  objects  in  relation  to  smaller  objects. 


Sm 

Men 

Women 

Bcnsi 

iXi 

1.5X1.5 
2X2 

3X3 

I.OO 

2. II 
2.68 

4-Si 

1.00 
2.61 

3-49 
9.70 

I.OO 

2.39 
3IS 

6.66 

4.  Likewise,  the  duration  of  a  stimulus  is  a  factor 
which  affects  attention.  A  stimulus  which  lasts  twice 
as  long  as  another  sends  approximately  twice  as  much 
nerve  current  to  the  brain  as  does  the  briefer  one.  Con- 
sequently, we  are  likely  to  attend  to  those  things  which 
endure  for  some  time.  There  is,  indeed,  a  lower  limit 
of  intensity,  size,  and  duration  of  stimulation  below  which 
no  sensation  results.  There  is  also  an  upper  limit  beyond 
which  increases  in  any  of  these  attributes  is  ineffective. 
If  an  object  is  so  large  that  it  fills  the  whole  visual  field, 
any  increase  in  size  is  ineffective  because  it  is  not  noticed. 
The  same  principle  holds  true  of  intensity  and  duration 
as  well. 

5.  The  frequency  with  which  the  stimulus  occurs 
may  likewise  affect  its  attention  value,  especially  if  it 
proves  to  be  interesting.  The  ease  with  which  the 
sound  of  our  names  will  distract  us  from  some  task  is 
a  familiar  example  of  this.  If  the  stimulus  does  prove 
to  be  interesting,  the  more  frequently  it  occurs,  other 
things  being  equal,  the  easier  it  is  to  attend  to  it,  for  a 
pathway  of  easy  entrance  of  the  nerve  current  derived 
from  it  has  been  established.    If  the  object  giving  rise 


ATTENTION 


III 


to  the  stimulus  has  no  particular  meaning,  if  we  have 
attended  to  it  on  previous  occasions  and  have  found 
that  it  does  not  enter  into  our  scheme  of  things,  it  will 
no  longer  be  attended  to  for  more  than  the  briefest  mo- 
ment, for  we  have  developed  a  habit  with  reference  to  it. 
To  test  the  attention  value  of  frequency  or  repetition, 
this  experiment  was  devised.  Three  colors  and  a  picture 
were  pasted  upon  a  card  the  size  of  the  standard  maga- 
zine advertising  page.  The  picture  always  occupied 
the  lower  right-hand  comer.  The  series  was  made  up 
in  such  a  way  that  the  same  picture  was  shown  either 
twice,  three  times,  or  four  times.  It  was  also  arranged 
so  that  the  like  pictures  would  sometimes  come  in  im- 
mediate succession,  sometimes  they  were  separated  by 
one  sheet,  again  by  two,  or  by  three  or  by  four  sheets. 
The  question  was  whether  the  same  picture,  always  in 
the  same  position  on  the  card,  would  catch  the  eye  more 
frequently  upon  its  first,  second,  third,  or  fourth  ap- 
pearance. The  pictures  were  of  different  sizes,  and  to 
allow  for  this,  the  total  credits  which  each  picture 
received  were  divided  by  the  attention  value  of  that 
size  as  determined  in  a  previous  experiment.  This 
method  of  treating  the  results  ruled  out  the  size  factor. 
None  of  the  pictures  was  colored,  so  there  had  to  be  no 
allowance  on  that  score.  A  factor  which  was  not  ruled 
out  was  the  interest  value  of  the  picture.  It  was  impos- 
sible to  determine  beforehand  what  pictures  would 
prove  interesting,  so  as  wide  a  range  as  possible  was 
selected,  with  the  idea  that  the  error  from  this  source 
would  tend  to  be  eliminated  in  the  long  nm.  These 
cards  were  exposed  for  a  fraction  of  a  second  in  the  same 
holder  which  was  used  in  the  previous  attention  experi- 
ments. One  hundred  and  seven  subjects  were  used, 
62  women  and  45  men.  To  make  the  results  com- 
parable, they  were  reduced  to  the  basis  of  icx3  subjects 
of  each  sex.    The  results  follow : 


i 


'if 


112     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 


Interval 

Female 
Number  of  cards  containing  same  picture 

I 

a 

13              3 

I           a 

3 

4 

o 
I 
a 

3 
4 

84 

as 

SO 
38 

22 

23 
33 
36 
22 

7          8        5 
30        23       24 

4          7        7 
27         19       27 

20        18       17 

20  12 
22  23 
12  17 
25  12 
28         19 

12 

14 
12 

13 

23 

8 
14 

13 
8 

25 

119 

114 

88        75      80 

107         83 

74 

68 

Male 

o 

I 

2 

3 

4 

33 
37 
i6 

36 

Sa 

54 
46 
36 
29 
43 

II         II        0 
40        37       26 
17         14       23 
29         26       23 
26         31       17 

17  II 
26  14 
29  29 
40  17 
20        31 

14 
6 

23 

9 

31 

29 
14 
14 
14 
29 

164 

198 

123       119       89 

123       102 

83 

100 

Reducing  these  figures  to  take  account  of  the  differ- 
ences in  area,  the  following  is  obtained : 


Female 

Interval 

I 

a 

I 

a 

3 

z 

a 

3 

4 

0 

8.0 

7-3 

43 

4.9 

3.1 

11.6 

6.9 

6.9 

4.6 

I 

lO.I 

8.9 

13.9 

10.7 

II. I 

13-8 

14.4 

8.8 

8.8 

2 

8.5 

8.5 

2.4 

4.2 

4.2 

7-3 

10.3 

7.3 

79 

3 

7.6 

9.8 

12.0 

8^5 

12.0 

15.4 

7.4 

8.0 

4.9 

4 

9.0 

?•! 

8.1 

7^3 

6.9 

14. 1 

93 

II. 2 

12.2 

43^2 

39.6 

40.7 

35-6 

37^3 

62.2 

48.3 

42.2 

38.4 

Male 

0 

II.O 

18.0 

6.8 

6.8 

0.0 

9.8 

6.4 

8.1 

16.8 

I 

IS-O 

18.6 

18.5 

17.1 

12.0 

16.2 

8.8 

3-8 

8.8 

2 

6.2 

lO.O 

10.3 

8.5 

14.0 

17.6 

17.6 

14.0 

8.5 

3 

9.8 

10.9 

12.9 

11.6 

10.3 

24.7 

10.5 

5.6 

8.7 

4 

16.8 

13-9 

10.6 

12.6 

6.9 

9.8 

15^1 

15.1 

14. 1 

48.8 

71.4 

59^1 

56.6 

43.2 

78.1 

58.4 

46.6 

56.9 

I 


I 


ATTENTION 


"3 


Female 

Ratios 

I.OO 

.92 

I.OO 

.88 

.92 

I.OO 

•78 

.68 

.62 

Male 

Ratios 

I.OO 

1.46 

I.OO 

.95 

•73 

I.OO 

•75 

•59 

.72 

Average 

I.CX) 

1. 18 

I.OO 

.91 

.83 

I.OO 

.76 

.65 

.67 

To  determine  the  attention  value  of  frequency  of 
repetition,  the  ratios  for  one,  two,  three,  and  four  ap- 
pearances were  averaged  for  the  women  and  for  the 
men.  The  results  of  the  men  and  the  women  were  then 
combined,  each  receiving  an  equal  value,  for  there  was 
no  desire  to  weigh  the  results  of  the  women,  though 
there  were  more  of  them.  The  table  showing  this  com- 
bination of  the  results  follows : 


Attention  Valtd 

rE  OF  Appearance 

s 

a 

3 

4 

Women 

Men 

I.OO 
I.OO 

.855 
I-055 

.798 
.663 

.618 
.738 

Both 

I.OO 

•955 

•731 

•673 

These  figures  show  that  a  picture,  such  as  is  custom- 
arily used  in  an  advertisement,  is  most  likely  to  catch 
the  attention  the  first  time  it  is  exposed,  and  the  chances 
of  its  being  seen  first  decrease  with  the  total  number  of 
times  that  it  is  presented.  This  is  the  average  tendency, 
for  it  often  happened  that  the  second  appearance  had  a 
higher  attention  value  than  the  first.  The  men,  on  the 
whole,  seem  to  be  more  influenced  by  repetition  than  do 
the  women.  The  results  also  indicate  that  the  men  are 
more  likely  to  see  the  picture  first. 

For  purposes  of  comparison  with  material  which  will 


I 


i 


i 


m 


114     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

come  later,  it  is  desirable  to  work  the  results  through 
in  another  way,  viz.,  by  totaling  the  number  of  times 
the  picture  was  seen  first  with  one  appearance,  two,  three, 
and  four  appearances.  This  is  obtained  by  adding 
together  the  ratios  for  one,  two,  three,  and  four  appear- 
ances. The  table  resulting  from  this  method  of  con- 
sidering the  data  is  given  below : 

Total  Number  of  Times  the  Picture  was  Seen  First  When  it 

Appeared 


Omce 

Twme 

TbmxxThos 

Four  Times 

Women 

Men 

1. 000 
1. 000 

1-8SS 
20SS 

2-653 
2.718 

3-271 
3-446 

Both 

1. 000 

1-955 

2.68s 

3-358 

This  method  of  considering  the  results  shows  that  the 
attention  value  of  frequency  of  repetition  varies  approxi- 
mately as  the  I.I 2  root  of  the  number  of  presentations. 
A^  curve,  showing  this  tendency  graphically,  is  given  in 
Fig.  V.  The  tendency  is  somewhat  more  marked 
with  the  men  than  it  is  with  the  women,  whereas  size 
had  a  greater  effect  upon  the  women  than  it  did  upon 
the  men. 

6.  Mere  intensity,  mere  size,  mere  duration,  however, 
soon  cease  to  be  effective,  for  we  soon  become  adapted 
to  them.  The  sense  organ  and  the  cortical  cells  soon 
become  fatigued,  the  nervous  excitation  in  that  region 
of  the  cortex  is  decreased  and  attention  wanes.  Conse- 
quently, change  in  intensity,  change  in  size,  change  in 
duration  are  necessary  to  keep  attention  going  for  any 
length  of  time.  This  principle  is  correlated  definitely 
with  the  following  one,  motion. 

7.  Anything  which  is  in  motion  is  almost  certain  to 
be  attended  to.    The  periphery  of  the  eye,  for  example, 


ATTENTION 


I 


IIS 


is  serviceable  largely  for  noticing  objects  which  are 
moving.  It  is  practically  blind  to  everything  else  under 
normal  conditions.  This  fact  greatly  increases  the 
likelihood  of  a  moving  object's  being  seen. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  these  first  five  conditions  of  at- 
tention are  really  biological  reasons  for  attending.  It 
was  absolutely  essential  that  our  prehistoric  ancestors 


Fig.  y.  —  Showing  the  attention  value  of  frequency.  The  number  of  times  the 
picture  was  presented  is  plotted  on  the  horizontal  line,  the  attention  value 
on  the  perpendicular.    For  complete  explanation  see  text. 

should  attend  to  objects  giving  rise  to  intense  stimuli, 
to  large  objects,  to  long-enduring  objects,  and  es- 
pecially to  moving  and  changing  objects.  For  those 
were  the  very  things  which  might  be  dangerous ;  which, 
if  neglected,  might  destroy  the  individual.  Conse- 
quently, those  who  proved  inattentive  were  soon  elimi- 
nated. In  this  way,  the  tendency  to  attend  to  size, 
intensity,  etc.  has  been  passed  on  from  generation  to 


II 


i' 


ii6     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

generation  down  to  the  present  day.  The  reason  that 
these  factors  are  effective  depends  in  every  case  upon  the 
sheer  amount  of  nerve  energy  which  comes  into  the  brain, 
overnding  all  opposition.     They  really  take  us  by  storm. 

The  objective  factors  or  conditions  are  called  by 
that  name  because  they  are  due  to  the  character  of  the 
stimulus  and  affect  practicaUy  all  persons  in  approxi- 
mately the  same  way.  They  give  rise  to  a  maximum 
of  activity  in  a  particular  cortical  region  because  of  the 
amount  of  nerve  energy  going  to  the  brain.  In  spite 
of  the  resistance  offered  to  their  passage  in  the  nervous 
system  which  results  in  a  decrease  of  the  amount  of 
nerve  current  eventually  getting  to  the  cortex,  there 
IS  so  much  left  that  it  produces  a  very  great  effect. 

Certain  other  sorts  of  stimuli,  which  are  weaker  or 
at  least  no  stronger  than  the  list  given  above,  get  into 
the  brain  without  having  to  waste  so  much  of  their 
substance  on  the  way.  This  is  because  they  go  over 
inherited  pathways  of  conduction  in  the  nervous  system 
which  offer  very  little  resistance  to  the  passage  of  the 
nerve  current. 

Certain  other  stimuli  have  an  easy  time  in  getting  to 
the  brain  because  we,  by  our  own  efforts  and  past  train- 
mg,  have  formed  pathways  of  low  resistance  leading 
to  the  brain.  Not  only  this,  but  such  stimuli  find  a 
ready  reception  once  they  get  mto  the  brain,  for  they 
enter  a  region  of  the  cortex  which  is  already  partially 
active.  The  partial  activity  plus  the  nerve  current 
which  gets  in  produce  a  greater  sum  total  of  activity  in 
that  region  of  the  brain  than  is  going  on  in  any  other 
part  of  it.    The  result  is  attention  to  that  object. 

Li  connection  with  the  second  class,  those  stimuli 
which  come  into  the  brain  over  inherited  pathways,  we 
have  the  whole  group  of  instincts  which  the  human 
bemg  possesses.  These  instincts  may  for  purposes  of 
classification  be  divided  into  three  groups:  the  indi- 


ATTENTION  u^ 

vidual,  the  social,  and  the  racial  instincts.  The  essen- 
tial factor  about  them  all  is  that  we  find  the  objects 
giving  nse  to  them  interesting.  By  interesting,  we 
mean  simply  that  we  find  them  easy  to  attend  to 

1.  Among  the  individual  instincts  may  be  mentioned 
the  followmg:  seeking  food,  fear,  pugnacity,  self-asser- 
tion CO lectmg,  hoarding,  rivalry,  hunting,  cruelty, 
constructiveness,  cleanliness.  ^' 

2.  Among  the  social  instincts  are  social  fear,  bash- 
fulness,  stage  fright,  and  the  like :  sociabiHty,  sympathy, 
self-sacnfice  for  the  larger  group.  ^ 

3.  Among  the  racial  instincts  are  sexual  love,  paren- 
tal love,  the  nest-building  or  home-building  tendency 
coquetry,  jealousy.  ^       ^ucuLy, 

Another  factor  which  must  be  mentioned,  though 
It  probably  belongs  to  neither  of  the  classes  so  far  dis- 
cussed, IS  color.  It  is  a  commonplace  of  experience 
t^^ofwf    t1  ^"^  ^^^^^^.^«1^^^  ^^ch  more  readily  than 

IV^f      'J  1  l^^''^'',  ''  ^^"'P^^^'  P^^%  because  of- 
the  mtensity  of  the  color  or  rather  the  sheer  physical 
energy  of   the   stimulation,   and  partiaUy   because  of 
biological  reasons;  for  certain  colors  meant,  primarily 
background,  and  certain  others  meant  food  or  danger 
TTiose  colors  which  meant  food  and  danger  are  the  ones 
which  we  attend  to  most  readily. 

As  a  continuation  of  the  experiment  upon  the  atten- 
tion  value  of  different  parts  of  the  page,  and  using  the 
same  general  niethod,  another  investigation  was  made 
upon  the  attention  value  of  the  different  spectral  colors  in 
tull  saturation  as  given  by  the  Bradley  series.    The  foUow- 

^nW  %Tu  ""^^^  •  '^^  ^'^^^^^  y^"^^'  ^^^^^  blue,  and 
violet.^    To  those  were  added  black  and  a  middle  gray 

ho.r^"'.^^  previous  experiment,  cards  of  white  paste- 
board, the  size  of  the  standard  magazine  advertising 
page,  were  ruled  off  with  black  lines  to  represent  the 
quarter-page  division  of  the  page.    Squares  of  color 


i 


n 


ii8     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

one  inch  on  a  side,  were  pasted  in  the  center  of  each  of 
the  areas  made  by  the  ruled  lines,  and  the  arrangement 
was  such  that  each  color  occupied  successively  each 
position  on  the  page. 

These  cards,  as  in  the  previous  experiment,  were 
shown  to  the  subject  one  at  a  time  and  he  was  instructed 
to  write  down  the  names  of  all  the  colors  which  he  saw 
in  the  order  in  which  they  entered  his  consciousness. 
A  total  of  119  subjects  was  used  in  this  experiment  and 
from  them  were  obtained  3257  reactions.  Smce  the 
primary  aim  of  the  experiment  was  to  test  the  attention 
value  of  the  different  colors,  it  was  decided  to  let  the 
fact  of  the  color  being  seen  first  constitute  the  measure 
of  this  value.  Since  each  color  appeared,  not  only  in 
the  preferred  position,  but  also  in  each  other  position 
on  the  page,  an  equal  number  of  times,  each  one  had, 
a  priori,  an  equal  chance  of  being  seen  first.  Therefore, 
if  any  one  color  was  seen  first  more  often  than  another, 
it  ought  to  be  because  of  a  stronger  attention  value.  ^ 

The  results  are  given  in  the  form  of  a  table,  in  which 
the  numbers  appearing  after  each  color  represent  the 
total  number  of  times  the  color  was  seen  first,  regardless 
of  its  position  on  the  page. 


Seen  First  by 

COLOK 

Men 

Women 

Both 

Red 

283 

323 

606 

Orange 

436 

262 

698 

YeUow 

216 

175 

391 

Green        

175 

236 

411 

Blue 

311 

224 

535 

Violet        

90 

90 

180 

Black        

222 

214 

436 

Gray 

0 

22 

22 

1733 

1524 

3257 

ATTENTION 


The  order  of  attention  value  is  as  follows 


119 


Color 

Men 

Women 

Both 

Red 

3 

I 

2 

Orange 

I 

2 

I 

Yellow 

5 

6 

6 

Green        

6 

3 

5 

Blue 

2 

4 

3 

Violet        

7 

7 

7 

Black 

4 

5 

4 

Gray 

8 

8 

8 

— 

Red,  orange,  blue,  and  black  are  the  colors  which  are 
most  likely  to  catch  the  eye  first  when  a  number  are 
presented  simultaneously.  That  women  rank  red  higher 
than  the  men  and  the  men  place  blue  higher  than  the 
women  is  interesting  because  of  the  fact,  as  will  be  seen 
later,  that  women  like  red  better  than  men  do,  whereas 
men  like  blue  better  than  women  do. 

The  question  of  the  attention  value  of  colors  had 
been  previously  investigated  by  Gale.^  He  says,  "We 
selected  the  standard  colors  according  to  Bradley's 
color  chart,  of  red,  orange,  yellow,  green,  blue,  and 
purple :  mounted  these  in  one  inch  squares  together 
with  a  black  square  on  a  nine-inch  square  white  ^  card- 
board. .  .  .  Each  card  was  momentarily  illuminated 
by  the  same  electric  light  apparatus.  .  .  .  The  pro- 
portion of  colors  thus  first  seen  by  9  male  and  7  female 
observers  in  50  trials  by  each  person  ...  is  as  follows." 
He  gives  his  results  for  the  white  background  in  the 
following  table.  His  results  with  the  black  background 
are  disregarded,  for  in  our  experiment  only  the  white 
backgroimd  was  used. 

iGale,  Harlow,  "University  of  Minnesota  Studies  in  Psychology," 
pages  55  ff. 


If 


ISO    ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 


Color 

Men 

WOMKN 

Both 

Red 

88 

"3 

38 

20  T 

Orange 

88 

126 

YeUow 

4 

23 

27 

Green 

87 

66 

153 

Blue 

24 

38 

62 

Purple 

8 

29 

37 

Black 

151 

43 

194 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  results  of  Gale's  experiment 
are  decidedly  different  from  the  one  described  above. 
This  may  be  due  to  three  reasons.  In  the  first  place, 
but  one  card  was  used  and  certain  of  the  colors  must 
have  occupied  preferred  positions.  Secondly,  the  mo- 
mentary illumination  by  the  electric  spark  did  not 
duplicate  advertising  conditions.  Also  the  spark  itself 
was  slightly  colored  and  would  consequently  change 
the  color  tone  of  each  of  the  stimulus  colors.  In  the 
third  place,  the  use  of  the  same  subject  50  times  is  ob- 
jectionable in  a  test  of  this  sort,  for  it  does  nothing  but 
overemphasize  the  individual  differences  which  always 
exist  in  a  problem  of  this  sort. 

The  third  group  of  stimuli,  which  we  attend  to  be- 
cause of  our  own  acquired  interests,  are  many  and 
varied.  In  part,  they  are  linked  up  with  the  instinctive 
variety,  in  part  they  are  modifications  of  the  instinctive, 
and  in  part  they  represent  real  individual  peculiarities. 
It  is  absolutely  essential  that  all  animals  attend  to  and 
make  adjustments  with  reference  to  certain  objects, 
for  these  objects  and  situations  occur  again  and  again 
in  the  history  of  the  race  and  of  the  individual.  It  is 
a  biological  economy  for  such  a  condition  to  exist. 
Other  stimuli  and  other  situations  occur  with  relative 
infrequence  to  the  whole  race,  but  are  very  frequent 
happenings    to    certain   individuals.    It   would    be    a 


11 


ATTENTION 


121 


biological  waste  to  implant  instincts  to  meet  the  latter 
situations  in  all,  for  the  majority  would  never  use  them. 
So  each  individual  is  left  to  work  out  his  own  salvation 
in  respect  to  these  situations.  The  development  on  the 
motor  sides  results  in  habits;  on  the  conscious  side  in 
acquired  interests.  As  was  shown  in  the  second  chapter, 
the  differences  in  interests  of  this  sort  are  largely  owing 
to  differences  in  occupation.  Because  in  different  occu- 
pations we  are  exposed  to  different  sorts  of  stimuli,  our 
minds  develop  in  terms  of  the  ideas  which  enter  them. 
The  manufacturer  has  had  a  different  training  and  con- 
sequently is  interested  in  different  things  from  the  soldier. 
'The  soldier  is  different  mentally  from  the  arrist,  the 
artist  from  the  farmer,  etc.  Each  is  interested  in 
different  things  or  interested  in  the  same  thing  in  differ- 
ent ways  and  for  different  reasons.  His  interests  de- 
termine his  attitude  towards  the  different  things  in  his 
environment,  determine  his  response  to  them.  He 
thinks  in  terms  of  the  things  which  he  knows,  and  regards 
almost  everything  else  as  uninteresting  and  difficult. 
He  thinks  in  terms  of  what  he  knows  and  he  attends  in 
terms  of  what  he  knows. 

An  incident,  quoted  by  James  from  Steinthal,*  will 
give  point  to  the  statement.  *'In  a  compartment  of  a 
railway  carriage  six  persons  unknown  to  each  other  sit 
in  lively  conversation.  It  becomes  a  matter  of  regret 
that  one  of  the  company  must  alight  at  the  next  station. 
One  of  the  others  says  that  he  of  all  things  prefers  such 
a  meeting  with  entirely  unknown  persons,  and  that  on 
such  occasions  he  is  accustomed  neither  to  ask  who  or 
what  his  companions  may  be  nor  to  tell  who  or  what 
he  is.  Another  thereupon  says  that  he  will  undertake 
to  decide  this  question,  if  they  each  and  all  will  answer 
him  an  entirely  disconnected  question.  They  began. 
He  drew  five  leaves  from  his  notebook,  wrote  a  question 

^  James,  "Principles  of  Psychology,"  11,  page  108. 


122     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

on  each,  and  gave  one  to  each  of  his  companions  with 
the  request  that  he  write  the  answer  below.  When  the 
leaves  were  returned  to  him,  he  turned,  after  reading 
them,  without  hestitation  to  the  others  and  said  to  the 
first,  'You  are  a  man  of  science';  to  the  second,  'You 
are  a  soldier ' ;  to  the  third  '  You  are  a  philologist ' ;  to 
the  fourth,  'You  are  a  joumaHst';  to  the  fifth,  'You 
are  a  farmer.'  All  admitted  that  he  was  right,  where- 
upon he  got  out  and  left  the  five  behind.  Each  wished 
to  know  what  question  the  others  had  received;  and 
behold,  he  had  given  the  same  question  to  each,  It  ran 
thus: 

"'What  being  destroys  what  it  has  itself  brought 
forth?'  ^ 

"To  this  the  naturalist  had  answered,  'vital  force'; 
the  soldier,  'war';  the  philologist,  'Kronos';  the 
publicist,  'revolution';  the  farmer,  'boar.'  Each  one 
answers  the  first  thing  that  occurs  to  him,  and  that  is 
whatever  is  most  nearly  related  to  his  pursuit  in  Ufe. 
Every  question  is  a  hole-drilling  experiment,  and  the 
answer  is  an  opening  through  which  one  sees  into  our 
interiors." 

The  reason  why  such  stimuli  gain  our  attention  is 
because  they  come  in  over  the  same  pathway  in  the 
nervous  system  so  many  times  that  they  decrease  the 
resistance  to  such  an  extent  that  the  stimulus  is  worn 
down  very  little  in  getting  to  the  brain.  Consequently 
the  stimulus  acts  with  maximum  intensity  in  the  cortex. 

All  of  the  factors  which  have  been  mentioned  so  far 
have  to  do  purely  and  simply  with  ease  of  gaining  at- 
tention. The  characteristics  are  such  that  nothing  but 
entrance  into  consciousness  is  considered.  In  order  to 
keep  attention  fixed  on  anything,  various  other  factors 
must  be  taken  into  account. 


CHAPTER  IX 
Holding  the  Attention 

In  order  to  hold  the  attention,  more  than  sheer  in- 
tensity of  stimulus  is  necessary.  We  know  from  prac- 
tical fife  that  we  can  hear  and  keep  on  hearing  the  low 
spoken  words  of  a  companion  even  amid  the  rattle  and 
roar  of  a  railroad  train.  We  can  attend  to  one  voice 
though  other  voices  in  the  neighborhood  are  louder. 
The  reason  is  that  we  are  more  interested  in  the  faint 
stimulus  than  we  are  in  the  more  intense  ones,  and  we 
set  ourselves,  or  adjust  ourselves  favorably,  for  its 
reception.  The  information  which  we  are  receiving 
fits  in  with  the  general  scheme  of  things  in  which  we  are 
interested  and  we  intentionally  shut  out  the  competing 
stimuli,  for  we  have  no  use  for  them  at  the  time.  Should 
they  obtrude  themselves  for  an  instant,  they  are  thrust 
out  of  the  focus  of  consciousness  and  our  attention 
swings  back  to  the  more  fascinating  topic.  Attention 
is,  then,  a  resultant  of  two  forces,  one  being  the  selection 
of  certain  stimuh  and  the  other  being  the  inhibition  or 
checking  of  others.  ^ 

It  is  assumed  that  no  brain  cell  is  capable  of  doing 
two  things  at  once.  If  it  is  active  in  one  way,  it  cannot 
be  active  in  another  at  the  same  time.  Since  all  of  our 
ideas  and  perceptions  depend  upon  very  complex  as- 
sociations of  brain  tracts  and  cells,  and  since  with  differ- 
ent ideas  there  is  very  frequently  an  overlapping  of 
functioning  of  brain  cells,  it  follows  that  but  one  sort  of 

123 


V. 


Ill 


124     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

association  process  can  take  place  at  once.    There  is  an 
inhibition  of  the  others. 

In  order  to  hold  attention,  it  is  necessary  that  the 
incoming  stimulus  shall  give  rise  to  an  idea  which  some- 
how is  bound  up  with  a  large  number  of  other  ideas.  In 
other  words,  the  attention  process  cannot  continue  for 
any  length  of  time  without  arousing  associations  of 
some  sort.  If  no  other  ideas  are  called  up,  the  stimulus 
must  issue  almost  immediately  in  movement.  Where 
associations  are  aroused,  the  movement  is  frequently 
delayed. 

The  different  sorts  of  ideas  which  we  have  are  grouped 
and  arranged  in  the  mind  in  such  a  way  that  those  which 
have  any  principle  of  connection  existing  between  them 
are  connected.  All  of  our  information  concerning  foot- 
ball is  likely  thus  to  be  organized.  Likewise  our  ideas 
concerning  typewriters  are  unified  and  connected,  and 
so  on  for  various  other  sorts  of  ideas.  These  organized, 
systematized  groups  of  ideas  may  be  called  'appercep- 
tive or  apperceiving  masses.'  The  holding  of  the  atten- 
tion depends  upon  linking  up  the  present  experience, 
whatever  it  may  be,  with  the  apperceptive  masses  with 
which  it  belongs.  Once  this  is  done,  the  attention  is 
surely  held  for  a  longer  time  than  it  otherwise  would  be. 
As  Pillsburyi  says,  "The  new  thing  will  draw  the 
attention,  but  not  to  hold  it  for  long,  while  the  known 
both  attracts  the  attention  and  holds  it.  We  see  the 
new  as  easily,  perhaps,  but  we  certainly  see  more  in  the 
old.  .  .  .  Furthermore,  when  the  attention  is  held  by 
the  new  thing  it  is  frequently  because  the  new  is  not 
entirely  new,  and  the  familiar  serves  with  the  new  to 
attract  attention." 

We  can  attend  to  one  thing  for  only  a  brief  period, 
usually  in  the  neighborhood  of  four  seconds.  If  the 
sensation  or  perception  has  attained  no  particular  mean- 

*  Pillsbury  "  Attention,"  page  50. 


HOLDING  THE  ATTENTION 


"5 


ing  in  that  time,  if  it  has  aroused  no  associations  of  an 
interesting  character,  it  lapses  from  consciousness. 
Should  associations  be  aroused,  however,  which  link 
the  stimulus  up  with  some  of  our  needs,  desires,  or 
interests,  different  phases  of  the  idea  will  present  them- 
selves one  after  the  other,  thereby  lengthening  many- 
fold  the  duration  of  the  attention  given  to  the  object. 

In  order  to  keep  attention,  then,  the  incoming  stimu- 
lus must  be  linked  up  with  other  ideas,  derived  either 
from  our  past  experience  or  with  our  hereditary  responses 
to  situations.  These,  for  want  of  a  better  term,  may  be 
called  the  subjective  conditions  of  attention.  As  given 
by  Pillsbury,  they  are :  —  idea  in  mind,  purpose,  atti- 
tude, education,  social  pressure,  and  heredity. 

I.  It  is  obvious  that  if  we  have  a  certain  idea  in  mind, 
we  are  to  that  extent  expectant.  It  is  therefore  easier 
for  the  incoming  stimulus  to  enter  consciousness.  Sup- 
pose we  have  a  large  gray  background  covered  with  bits 
of  colored  paper,  no  two  of  the  same  color  being  of  the 
same  shape.  Ideally,  the  pieces  of  colored  paper  should 
be  of  the  same  size,  the  same  intensity,  etc.  They  should 
present  absolutely  equal  chances  of  being  attended  to 
as^  far  as^  the  objective  factors  are  concerned.  Other 
things  being  equal,  the  observer  will  see  red  or  orange 
first  with  greater  frequency  than  any  other  color,  when 
they  are  exposed  for  a  second  or  less.  If,  in  another 
test,  with  a  different  card  made  up  in  a  similar  manner, 
he  is  told  to  look  for  green,  he  will  see  the  green  cards 
to  the  practical  exclusion  of  all  the  other  colors.  Nor 
will  he  be  able  to  tell  the  shapes  of  the  greens.  He  was 
set  mentally  to  receive  the  one  kind  of  impression,  and 
that  was  therefore  what  he  received.  Not  only  is  this 
sort  of  impression  received  with  greater  readiness,  but 
it  tends  also  to  last  longer  in  consciousness,  for  the  ap- 
perceptive masses  which  are  linked  up  with  the  color 
are  already  partially  active,  thereby  presenting  easier 


I 


126     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

pathways  of  nervous  conduction  than  are  presented  by 
the  pathways  for  the  associating  of  other  colors. 

2.  The  purpose  or  the  attitude,  being  composed  as 
it  is  of  organized  systems  of  ideas,  may  be  thought  of  as 
a  condition  of  attention  for  the  same  reason  that  an 
idea  is.  "If  a  man  has  several  occupations,  he  will 
change  his  attitude  towards  the  world  as  he  changes 
his  occupations,  even  if  the  changes  take  place  at  short 
intervals,  and  with  the  attitude  there  will  be  a  variation 
in  the  object  which  is  likely  to  catch  his  attention."* 
Other  impressions  which  are  not  in  harmony  with  the 
purpose  or  attitude  at  the  moment  will  be  neglected,  or, 
if  they  do  arrive  in  consciousness  will  receive  no  con- 
sideration. 

To  test  the  effect  of  the  attitude,  purpose,  and  idea, 
the  following  experiment  was  devised.  Ten  persons 
who  had  already  taken  part  in  the  investigation  on 
the  attention  value  of  color  were  put  through  the 
same  test  again,  the  only  difference  being  that  they 
were  told  to  expect  in  every  case  to  see  red.  Similarly, 
they  were  asked  to  keep  thinking  of  green,  yellow,  and 
blue  with  subsequent  exposures  of  the  cards.  The 
results  were  very  striking,  for  they  showed  that  on  the 
average  the  color  which  was  thought  of  was  three  times 
as  likely  to  be  seen  as  the  same  color  under  the  con- 
ditions of  the  previous  test. 

3.  Education  or  training  is  a  condition  of  attention 
because  education  gives  the  individual  certain  attitudes 
toward  the  different  ways  of  regarding  the  phenomenal 
universe  and  different  purposes  with  respect  to  these 
different  subdivisions.  "Nearly  every  trade  and  pro- 
fession has  given  its  members  a  mind  adapted  to  re- 
ceiving impressions  that  would  not  be  received  by  the 
great  mass  of  men."^    "Besides  the  influence  which 

*Pillsbur\',  "  Attention,"  page  38. 
'  Ibid. J  page  40. 


. 


HOLDING  THE  ATTENTION 


127 


practice  has  upon  increasing  the  adequacy  of  attention, 
it  has  an  almost  equally  marked  effect  upon  determining 
the  direction  of  attention  at  any  given  time,  of  determin- 
ing the  object  that  shall  be  attended  to. 

"The  world  is  presented  in  almost  infinite  possibilities 
of  perception,  but  each  man  takes  from  it  only  what 
his  previous  training  has  prepared  him  to  receive.  What 
he  has  seen  at  one  time  is  very  largely  instrumental  in 
determining  what  he  shall  see  later,  each  experience 
prepares  the  way  for  another."  * 

"Most  seeing  is  the  result  of  self-conscious  purpose."  ^ 

4.  Social  pressure  is  simply  the  result  of  a  special 
kind  of  training  and  should  properly  be  a  subdivision 
under  3. 

5.  Heredity,  as  was  pointed  out  above,  is  primarily 
a  condition  of  attention  because  of  easy  access  to  the 
brain  by  any  stimulus.  In  the  second  place,  however, 
if  we  react  to  a  certain  situation  a  certain  number  of 
times,  we  must  derive  a  considerable  amount  of  train- 
ing from  the  sum  total  of  these  experiences  which  will 
result  in  the  formation  of  an  apperceiving  mass  with 
reference  to  it. 

This  completes  the  group  of  the  conditions.  The 
first,  or  objective  conditions,  show  simply  how  to  catch 
the  attention.  The  other  two  groups  of  conditions 
show  not  only  how  to  catch  the  attention  but  also  how 
to  hold  it. 

THE   STRENGTH  OF  THE  HUMAN  INTERESTS 

It  has  been  said  that  we  continue  to  attend  only  to 
those  things  which  are  interesting,  those  which  arouse 
associations,  either  because  of  heredity  or  because  of 
environment.    In  a  general  way  we  know  that  most 

1  Pillsbury,  "Attention,"  page  43. 
*  Ibid.,  page  45. 


I  I 


t 


I 


128     ADVERTISING  AND   ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

men  are  interested  in  a  fight  or  combat  of  any  sort. 
Such  general  impressions  are  very  common,  but  not 
enough  exact  and  scientific  observations  have  been  made 
to  inform  us  of  the  relative  strength  of  the  different 
interests  of  the  human  being.  In  fact,  it  is  a  problem 
which  is  practically  incapable  of  direct  solution.  By 
indirect  means,  however,  it  is  possible  to  obtain  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  information  in  regard  to  the  strength 
of  the  different  human  interests. 

The  method  was  first  employed,  in  connection  with 
advertising,  by  Gale^  at  Minnesota,  and  was  later 
elaborated  and  worked  out  in  very  great  detail  by 
HoUingworth ^  and  Strong^  at  Columbia.  The  ex- 
periments were  conducted  as  follows :  a  series  of  adver- 
tisements of  the  same  commodity,  differing  in  type  of 
appeal,  is  given  to  a  person  who  is  asked  to  arrange 
them  in  the  order  in  which  they  influence  him  to  buy 
the  commodity.  The  most  persuasive  advertisement, 
according  to  his  notion,  is  called  i,  the  next  most  per- 
suasive is  called  2,  the  next  3,  and  so  on  until  all  the 
advertisements  in  the  series  have  been  arranged.  Other 
individuals  are  later  put  through  the  same  experiment, 
and  when  enough  have  been  used,  or  the  possibiUties  of 
the  laboratory  have  been  exhausted,  the  numbers  repre- 
senting the  position  of  advertisement  A  are  averaged, 
those  for  B  are  averaged  and  so  on  throughout  the 
series.  The  smallest  average  shows  that  that  advertise- 
ment possessed,  in  the  minds  of  the  subjects  employed 
in  the  test,  the  greatest  persuasive  value.  Likewise, 
the  one  possessing  the  largest  average  was  the  least 
persuasive,  and  the  mtermediate  averages,  arranged 
from  lowest  to  highest,  give  the  descending  order  of 
merit  of  the  series  of  advertisements.    This  method  is 

'  Gale,  "  Psy.  Studies  from  the  Univ.  of  Minn  "  pages  59  flf. 
*Hollingworth,  "Advertising  and  Selling,"  Chap.  I. 
•  Strong,  "  The  Relative  Merits  of  Advertisements." 


HOLDING  THE  ATfENTION 


129 


very  adaptable  and  is  capable  of  revealing  many  things 
which  could  never  be  brought  out  otherwise.  Since 
each  different  kind  of  commodity  must,  in  the  nature 
of  the  case,  use  somewhat  different  appeals,  it  was 
found  impossible  to  obtain  any  ordered  series  of  interests 
which  would  be  sufficiently  inclusive. 

To  get  around  this  difficulty,  Hollingworth  *  pre- 
pared a  set  of  50  appeals  which  were  abstract  in  nature. 
No  particular  article  was  advertised,  and  each  state- 
ment was  to  be  considered  merely  in  the  light  of  an 
argument.  These  arguments  were  arranged  by  a  group 
of  20  men  and  20  women,  and  the  relative  order  of 
persuasiveness  was  worked  out.  The  underlying  as- 
sumption is  that  the  individual  will  consider  that  appeal 
as  the  most  effective  which  is  to  the  greatest  degree 
linked  up  with  his  interests.  It  is,  then,  an  indirect 
way  of  studying  the  relative  strength  of  the  main  in- 
terests of  the  human  being.  It  is  unfortunate  that  so 
few  subjects  were  used,  for  it  is  very  doubtful  if  the 
results  of  20  subjects  indicate  a  fair  cross  section  even 
of  that  phase  of  human  nature  represented  by  college 
students.  However,  elaborations  of  the  test  show  that 
the  order  of  arrangement  made  by  20  women,  a  month 
apart,  was  very  similar,  exhibiting  a  coefficient  of  cor- 
relation of  plus  .903.  Likewise,  the  results  of  a  group 
of  ten  women  and  another  group  of  twenty  showed  a 
coefficient  of  correlation  of  plus  .610.  Because  of  this 
fact,  it  seems  probable  that  the  results  are  fairly  trust- 
worthy. 

Exactly  the  same  material  was  used  in  tests  on  60 
students  at  the  University  of  Michigan,  40  being  men 
and  20,  women.  The  results  of  the  two  tests  show  a 
considerable  amount  of  agreement,  the  coefficient  of 
correlation  for  the  two  groups  of  men  being  plus  0.80, 
and  for  the  two  groups  of  women  .615.     The  difference 

^  Hollingworth,  Psy.  Rev.,  Vol.  18,  pages  234-256. 


id 


r 


i! 


I 


130     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

between  the  results  of  the  men  and  the  women  will  show 
the  sex  differences  in  type  of  appeal. 

Because  the  experiment  is  so  definitely  Hollingworth^s/ 
his  description  of  it  will  be  quoted. 

**  These  appeals  were  typewritten  on  separate  slips  of 
paper  of  uniform  size.  Each  card  bore  a  single  word  or 
pair  of  words,  designed  to  emphazise  the  specific  char- 
acter and  direction  of  the  appeal,  to  reenforce  the  sug- 
gestion or  argument  offered  by  the  text  itself,  and  to 
insure  so  far  as  possible,  the  same  attitude  in  all  the 
observers  in  the  presence  of  the  respective  appeals. 
By  employing  such  material  the  following  results  were 
secured : 

"i.  Each  appeal  tends  to  be  single  and  uncompli- 
cated by  other  interests. 

**  2.  Each  is  divorced  from  reactions  to  any  article  or 
brand  as  such. 

"3.  The  elimination  of  cuts  and  the  use  of  the  same 
general  style  and  expression  lends  homogeneity  to  the 
group. 

"4.  A  wider  range  of  specialized  isolated  appeals 
is  secured." 

The  series  of  50  abstract  appeals,  as  given  by  Holling- 
worth,  follows :  — 

''i.  1K6.  Scientific.  —  Our  1K6  article  is  manufac- 
tured by  approved  scientific  methods  and  scientifically 
tested  processes,  by  technically  trained  men,  working 
under  the  constant  supervision  of  experts." 


East 
West 


ytm 

Woken 

2 

2 

4 

29 

"2.  1W5.  Durability.  —  Combine  utility  with  dura- 
bility by  using  1W5.  It  lasts  one  third  longer  than  the 
ordinary  article.    Stands  the  wear  and  tear  of  constant 

*  Hoilingworth,  Psy.  Rev.,  Vol.  i8,  pages  241-242. 


\ 


HOLDING  THE  ATTENTION 


131 


use   combining  equal  quality  with  greater  permanence 
and  longer  service." 


East 
West 


Men 
6 
3 


Women 

I 
2 


3.  1F3.  Sanitary.  —  This  is  the  only  sanitary  1F3 
on  the  market.  Put  up  in  germ-proof,  dust-proof, 
hermetically  sealed  packages,  and  made  of  strictly  pure 
and  unadulterated  ingredients." 


East 
West 


Men         Women 


3 
7 


5 
6 


u 


^  -4.  2D8.  Efficiency.—Actual  energy,  earning  power, 
IS  what  counts  in  modern  business.     The  day  is  past 

^T^Q^  ^f,^?^"^^^^^  ^^^^^^  on  pull  and  social  influence. 
2D8  will  increase  your  efficiency  25  per  cent.  By  no 
other  means  can  you  secure  such  prompt  and  sure  in- 
crease of  producing  capacity." 


East 
West 


Men 

8 
2 


Women 
7 

XI 


"5.  1T8.  rfwe.  —  Save  the  minutes  and  the  hours 
will  save  themselves.  Time  is  money.  Our  latest  1T8 
IS  the  biggest  time-saver  on  the  market.  Does  in  twenty 
nnnutes  what  requires,  with  other  brands,  a  half  an  hour  " 


East 
West 


Men 

14 
II 


Women 

3 

8 


6.  1N6.  Appetizing.  —  Try  1N6.  It  comes  fresh 
from  the  field  and  its  appetizing  flavor  is  a  treat  to  the 
palate.  It  makes  a  dainty  breakfast,  a  delightful 
luncheon,  and  a  delicious  desert." 


East    . 
West  . 


Men 

5 
6 


Women 
13 

xa 


I       1 


f 


132     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

**7.  2B7.  Family  Afection.  —  A  final  day  must 
come  to  every  man,  and  no  one  wants  to  see  his  children 
left  dependent  on  mere  accident.  You  owe  a  duty  of 
provision  and  foresight  to  your  family.  A  2B7  will 
guarantee  their  comfort  and  security  when  you  are 
gone." 

Mbh         Women 


East 
West 


I 

I 


17 
30 


"8.  1Z5.  Value.  —  Absolutely  superior  quality  and 
finer  finish.  1Z5  may  cost  a  little  more,  but  it's  worth 
the  difference.    One  trial  will  convince." 


East 
West 


Mkn 

16 
13 


Women 

4 
4 


"9.  2L7.  Evolution.  —  Our  latest  2L7  is  the  result 
of  generations  of  experience  and  experiment.  After 
years  of  trial  2L7  stands  distinctly  in  a  class  by  itself 
as  the  final  product  of  a  long  evolution,  —  the  climax 
of  mechanical  genius." 


East 
West 


Men 

Women 

12 

II 

5 

27 

« 


10.  2C8.  Ambition.  —  There's  always  room  higher 
up.  Capable  leaders  are  always  in  demand.  Why 
stay  among  the  incompetent  when  2C8  will  bring  you  a 
better  position  and  increase  your  salary?  The  man  who 
uses  2C8  is  sure  of  recognition  and  rapid  promotion." 


East 
West 


Men 

Women 

18 

6 

12 

7 

"11.  2F6.  Self-defence.  —  Forearmed  is  forewarned. 
Your  life  is  always  threatened  by  some  lurking  danger 
or  another.    With  2F6  in  your  home  you  are  always 


HOLDING  THE  ATTENTION 


133 


secure  and  able  to  protect  the  rights  and  person  of 
yourself  and  of  those  whose  safety  is  your  chief  concern." 


East    . 
West  . 


Men 

10 
20 


Women 

IS 
14 


tt 


12.  1R4.  Reputation.  —  Established  in  1870,  we 
have  been  for  40  years  the  leading  manufacturers  of  1R4 
in  the  country.  We  have  the  longest  and  must  enviable 
record  of  any  house,  in  our  line,  on  the  continent." 


East 

West 


Men 

21 
8 


Women 

9 
22 


"13.  2E9.  Guaranteed.  —  Our  well-known  trade- 
mark guarantees  quality  and  satisfaction.  All  our  2E9 
is  strictly  warranted  high  grade.  Your  money  refunded 
if  2E9  does  not  accompKsh  all  we  claim  for  it. 


East 
West 


Men 

20 
16 


Women 
10 
23 


"14.  1P5.  Stimulating.  —  1P5  fortifies  the  body 
against  inroads  of  toil  and  disease,  gives  new  life  and 
vigor  to  tired  muscles  and  nerves,  and  removes  unneces- 
sary strain  and  fatigue." 

Mm         Women 


East 
West 


41 
42 


12 
36 


"15.  1V3.  Safety.  — Kvoid  danger  by  using  the 
only  absolutely  safety  built,  accident-proof  1V3.  Do 
not  court  danger  by  taking  chances.  This  is  the  only 
1V3  in  which  you  get  all  the  protection  and  none  of  the 
risk." 


East 
West 


Mbh 

7 
14 


Women 
26 
3 


134     ADVERTISmG  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

"  i6.  1E5.  Popular.  —  The  name  is  on  all  tongues. 
You  will  find  1E5  in  the  ladies'  dressing  room,  in  the 
scholar's  study,  in  the  nursery,  in  the  kitchens  of  the 
himible,  in  crowded  Eastern  cities  and  on  limitless 
Western  Plains.  Used  in  millions  of  homes  and  every- 
where it  is  on  top." 

WOHEN 


East 
West 


4 

32 


29 
38 


U 


17.  2R5.  Economize.  —  A  dollar  saved  is  a  dollar 
earned.  2R5  will  save  you  money.  Why  not  cut  down 
expense  items  and  start  a  bank  account.  2R5  will  help 
you  do  it." 

MW  WOH£N 


East 
West 


19 
23 


14 

20 


"18.  1Q3.  Maternal  Love.  —  Nothing  is  too  good  for 
baby.  1Q3  comforts  and  soothes  the  little  chap  and 
makes  of  babyhood  one  happy  playtime.  Assures  the 
children's  health  and  enjoyment." 


East 
West 


IS 
10 


WOICEN 

18 
16 


"  19.  I J4.  Modernity.  —  Strictly  up-to-date  design 
with  all  the  latest  improvments.  1J4  is  equipped  with 
every  advantage  and  ingenious  device  known  to  recent 
invention." 


East 
West 


Meh 

13 
19 


Women 

22 

28 


(( 


20.  1C3.  Health. — As  a  general  tonic,  1C3  is 
imequaled.  It  nourishes  the  system,  enriches  the 
blood,  builds  up  firm,  healthy  tissue  and  gives  tone 
and  color  to  the  whole  body.  Prevents  grippe  and 
pneumonia." 


II 


HOLDING  THE  ATTENTION 


13s 


East 
West 


Men 

30 
37 


Women 

8 
21 


it 


21.  1X9.  Quality.  —  Why  keep  on  wasting  money 
when  for  the  price  of  the  ordinary  article  you  can  get 
our  superior  1X9.  Goes  farther  and  does  the  work 
better  than  any  other." 

Men         Women 
East 22  16 


West 


22 
39 


19 


u 


22.  1A7.  Elegance.  —  Nothing  contributes  so 
strongly  to  the  luxurious  comfort  of  the  modem  home  as 
1A7.  Its  presence  gives  dignity  and  elegance  to  the 
whole  and  creates  an  atmosphere  of  daintiness  and  dis- 
tinction." 


East 
West 


Men 

II 
27 


Women 

30 
10 


« 


23.  1G2.  Bargain.  —  No  1G2  was  ever  offered 
before  for  the  money.  As  good  as  any  others  and  only 
two  thirds  their  cost.  We  are  enabled  to  offer  this 
proposition  only  by  virtue  of  our  mammoth  plant  and 
enormous  capacity.    Why  pay  more?" 


East 
West 


Men 

17 

40 


Women 
28 
33 


"24.  2Q7.  Sympathy.  —  Kindness  is  the  first  law 
of  humanity.  Much  of  the  pain  and  discomfort  in- 
flicted on  dumb  animals  could  be  relieved  by  using  2Q7. 
Be  humane  to  your  beast.    Use  2Q7." 


East 
West 


Men 

9 
9 


Women 

37 

I 


"25.   2O8.    Necessary.  —  You   cannot  afford   to  do 
without  2O8.    It  is  indispensable  in  your  home,  in  your 


i 


136     ADVERTISING  AND   ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 


business,  in  your  recreation, 
child  needs  it  constantly." 


Every  man,  woman  and 


East 
West 


Man 

27 
38 


Women 

20 
34 


"  26.  2W8.  Middlemen.  —  Why  pay  middlemen's 
profit?  Buy  direct  from  the  manufacturer  and  keep 
the  profits  yourself.  We  make  2W8  and  ship  straight 
to  the  consumer." 

MzN         Women 

East 26  23 

West 34  17 

"27.  2Z7.  Courtesy.  —  Nothing  is  more  discourteous 
than  an  offensive  breath.  2Z7  cleanses  the  system, 
purifies  the  blood,  and  sweetens  the  breath." 


East 
West 


Men 

25 


Women 

27 
15 


"  28.  2T9.  Remarkable  Growth.  —  The  superior  qual- 
ity of  2T9  is  demonstrated  by  the  rapid  development  of 
our  business. 


Total  Capital,  1890 
Total  Capital,  1895 
Total  Capital,  1900 
Total  Capital,  1905 
Total  Capital,  1910 


East 
West 


Men 

36 
15 


$  15,273-00 

85,896.00 

240,142.00 

703,279.00 

3,875,639-00 

Women 

19 
25 


"29.  1S6.  Amusement.  —  Don't  look  bored!  Buy 
1 86.  The  most  side-splitting,  mirth-provoking  novelty 
ever  devised.  Amuses  old  and  young.  Affords  fun 
and  laughter  from  morning  till  night." 


East 
West 


BlEN 

«3 
28 


Women 

34 
13 


HOLDING  THE  ATTENTION 


137 


"30.  2X4.  Hospitality.  —  Don't  be  content  with 
envying  the  successful  hostess  when  you  can  secure  the 
same  keen  pleasure  for  yourself.  The  homes  equipped 
with  2X4  are  known  far  and  wide  for  their  generous 
comfort  and  open  hospitahty." 


East 
West 


Men 

34 
21 


Women 

34 
5 


"31.  2Y9.  Youth.  —  The  fountain  of  eternal  youth 
has  never  been  discovered,  but  it  has  been  demonstrated 
beyond  a  doubt  that  2Y9  restores  youthful  vigor, 
quickens  the  step,  and  gives  new  life  to  both  mind  and 
body." 


East 
West 


Men 

44 
33 


Women 

39 
3a 


"32.  2V7.  Hunting.  —  Just  the  thing  for  the  fishing 
and  hunting  trip.  Insures  a  lively  spirit  in  the  field 
and  solid  comfort  in  the  camp.  No  vacation  outfit  is 
complete  without  2V7." 


East 
West 


Men 

28 
18 


Women 

31 
x8 


"33.  1O9.  Social  Standing.  —  The  use  of  1O9  is 
the  stamp  of  the  gentleman.  It  is  always  found  where 
social  standards  are  high,  and  is  the  favorite  of  men  and 
women  of  discriminating  taste  and  culture." 


East 
West 


Men 

24 
30 


Women 

38 
35 


"34.  2S8.  Enornums.  —  We  have  the  largest  estab- 
lishment engaged  in  the  production  of  2S8  in  the  United 
States.  Capital,  $12,000,000.00.  Factories  or  branch 
establishments  in  every  prominent  city  in  the  country." 


i 


138     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 


East 

West 


Men 

31 


WoifEN 

25 

40 


(( 


35.  1Y2.  Cheap.  —  Buy  1Y2.  Costs  just  one  half 
the  price  of  its  competitors.  Why  spend  two  day's 
wages  when  one  day's  work  will  bring  our  high-class 
article  to  your  home?" 

Men         Womeh 

East 33 

West 46 


32 
44 


"36.  2J9.  Get  the  Genuine.  —  Avoid  substitutes. 
Many  may  pattern  after  us,  but  none  can  equal  us. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  2J9  has  many  imitators,  but 
there  is  only  one  standard,  genuine  article.    Ask  for 

2J9." 

Men         Women 


East 
West 


48 
35 


21 
31 


"37.  2P6.  Progress.  —  Don't  be  a  dead  one.  Use 
2P6  and  be  up  to  date.  It  is  an  essential  part  of  every 
progressive  modem  establishment." 


East 
West 


Men 

29 
17 


Women 
40 
9 


"38.  2 A3.  Sale.  —  We  are  closing  out  our  large 
stock  of  2A3  at  a  great  sacrifice,  to  make  way  for  next 
year's  goods.  For  the  next  ten  days  2A3  will  be  sold 
for  less  than  cost.  Come  early.  Don't  miss  this  rare 
opportunity." 

Men         Women 


East 
West 


31 
26 


41 
42 


it 


39.   2M5.    Excel.  —  Don't  be  a  wall  flower.    Use 
2M5  and  you  will  be  the  envy  of  all  your  friends.    It 


* 


HOLDING  THE  ATTENTION 


139 


gives  that  look  of  superiority  which  everyone  recognizes 
and  respects,  but  which  few  possess." 


East 
West 


Men 
42 
45 


Women 
36 
43 


"40.  2K4.  Civic  Pride.  —  We  appeal  to  your  civic 
pride.  2K4  is  made  in  your  own  city,  by  local  work- 
men, and  backed  by  strictly  home  capital.  Encourage 
home  industry.    Use  2K4." 


East 
West 


Men 

45 
34 


Women 

33 
36 


"41.  1H9.  Patriotism.  —  Our  1H9  product  is  made 
for  American  consumers,  of  strictly  American-grown 
materials,  by  an  American  firm  employing  exclusively 
American  labor  and  American  capital." 


East 
West 


Men 

43 

44 


Women 
35 


"42.  2G4.  Union  Made.  —  We  stand  for  organized 
labor.  2G4  is  a  strictly  union-made  product,  built  by 
union  labor,  of  union-raised  material,  and  sold  exclu- 
sively by  all  union  dealers." 

Men         WoMEir 


East 
West 


32 
49 


49 
SO 


"43.  1M8.  Recommendation.  —  Here's  what  the 
world-famous  tenor  of  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House 
says  of  1M8 : 

"I  have  used  your  product  constantly  and  have  con- 
tinued to  derive  great  benefit  from  it. 

(Signed)  "Enrico  Caruso." 


East 
West 


Men 

37 
-29 


Women 
46 
45 


,1 

'1 


I40     ADVERTISING  AND   ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

"44.  1D8.  Nobby.  — Out  1D8  products  are  made 
by  our  smartest  designers,  especially  for  those  who  love 
nobby  and  dressy  styles.  Exclusive  patterns  and  dash- 
ing cuts,  unequaled  in  snap  and  color." 


East 
West 


Mem 

35 
43 


Women 

48 
37 


"45.  1B5.  Style.— -Out  new  1B5  is  fresh  from  the 
center  of  fashion,  representing  the  latest  creation  of 
accepted  artists  of  style,  in  exclusive  designs  and  dressy 
patterns,  chic  and  strictly  d  la  mode.^' 


East 
West 


Men 

40 
36 


Women 

47 
41 


"46.  1L7.  Royalty.  —  1L7  will  be  found  in  most  of 
the  houses  of  European  royalty.  We  are  commissioned 
by  official  warrant  to  supply  1L7  to  his  Excellency,  the 
Emperor  of  Germany." 


East 
West 


39 
32 


Women 

SO 
49 


"47.  2N7.  Admiration.  —  Do  you  desire  the  admira- 
tion of  those  you  meet?  Use  2N7  and  you  will  be  the 
constant  center  of  attraction  to  adoring  and  envious 
eyes.  No  jewels  or  marvels  of  costuming  can  add  so 
much  to  your  appearance  as  2N7." 


East 
West 


Men 

47 
50 


Women 

43 
48 


"  48.  2H8.  Imported.  —  All  2H8  products  are  strictly 
imported  and  foreign  stamped.  2H8  comes  straight 
from  European  makers,  and  its  superior  quality  is  thereby 
guaranteed." 


HOLDING  THE  ATTENTION 


141 


East    . 
West  . 


Men 

46 

47 


Women 

45 

47 


"49.  1U4.  Beauty.  —  Are  you  as  pretty  as  you  might 
be?  No  one  wants  to  be  homely.  The  continued  use 
of  1U4  removes  the  undesirable  blemish,  beautifies  the 
complexion,  renders  the  form  attractive,  and  gives  charm 
to  the  figure." 


East 
West 


Men 

50 
48 


Women 

42 
46 


"50.  2U3.  Personality.  —  Everyone  desires  to  be 
attractive  to  the  opposite  sex.  2U3  will  give  you  dis- 
tinctive presence  and  engaging  personality  which  is 
irresistible  in  its  appeal." 


East 
West 


Men 

49 
41 


Women 

44 
39 


The  results,  showing  the  order  of  merit  of  the  different 
appeals,  is  given  below  for  the  Eastern  and  Middle 
Western  subjects.  The  results  for  men  and  women  are 
given  separately. 


Appeai. 

E 
Male 

w 

Male 

E 
Female 

w 

Female 

I.   Scientific    .     .     .     ,     - 

2 
6 

3 
8 

14 

S 

I 

16 
12 
18 
10 

4 

3 

7 
2 

II 

6 

I 

13 

5 
12 

20 

2 

I 

5 

7 

3 

13 

17 

4 

II 

6 

IS 

29 

-5 

2.   Durability .     .     . 

%.   Sanitary     .     . 

6 

4.  Efficiency        .     .    . 

5.  Time  saved     .     . 

6.  Appetizing      ,     . 

7.  Family  aflfection 

8.  Value 

II 

8 

12 

30 

4 
27 

7 
14 

9.   Evolution  .... 

10.   Ambition    .... 

II.   Self-defense     .     .    . 

H 


r 


i 


y; 


142     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 


Afpeax> 


12.  Reputation 

13.  Guaranteed 

14.  Stimulating 

15.  Safety    .     . 

16.  Popular 

17.  Economize 

18.  Parental  love 

19.  Modem 

20.  Health 

21.  Quality  .    . 

22.  Elegance     . 

23.  Bargain 

24.  Sympathy 

25.  Necessary 

26.  Middleman 

27.  Courtesy    . 

28.  Growth 

29.  Amusement 

30.  Hospitality 

31.  Youth    .    . 

32.  Hunting     . 

33.  Social  standing 

34.  Enormous 

35.  Cheap    .     . 

36.  Genuine 

37.  Progress     . 

38.  Sale  .    .    . 

39.  Excel     .    . 

40.  Civic  pride 

41.  Patriotism 

42.  Union  made 

43.  Recommendation 

44.  Nobby  .    . 

45.  Style      .    . 

46.  Royalty 

47.  Admiration 

48.  Imported   . 

49.  Beauty  .     . 

50.  Personality 


E 

Maue 


21 
20 
41 

7 
4 
19 
IS 
13 
30 
22 
II 
17 

9 

27 

26 

25 
36 
23 
34 

44 
28 

24 
38 

33 
48 

29 

31 

42 

45 
43 
32 
37 

35 
40 

39 
47 
46 
50 
49 


W 
Male 


8 
16 
42 

14 
22 

23 
10 

19 

37 

39 

27 

40 

9 
38 
24 

25 
IS 
28 

21 

33 
18 

30 

31 
46 

35 
17 
26 

45 

34 

44 

49 
3^ 

43 
36 
32 
50 

47 
48 

41 


E 
Female 


9 
10 
12 
26 

29 
14 
18 
22 
8 
16 

30 
28 

37 
20 

23 
27 

19 
34 
24 
39 
31 
38 

25 
32 
21 
40 
41 
36 
33 
35 
49 
46 

48 
47 
50 
43 
45 
42 

44 


W 
Female 


22 
23 
36 

3 
38 
20 
16 
28 
21 
19 
10 

33 

I 

17 

IS 

25 

13 

S 

32 
18 

35 
40 

44 

31 

9 

42 

43 
26 

24 
SO 
45 
37 
41 

49 

48 

47 
46 

39 


Combining  the  results  of  the  Eastern  men  and  women 
and  the  Western  men  and  women,  the  following  table 
is  obtained. 


1 


HOLDING  THE  ATTENTION 


143 


The  Ranking  of  Different  Appeals  with  Different  Goods 


Appeal 

Durability      .     . 

.    I 

Sanitary    .     .     . 

.    2 

Efficient    .     .     . 

.    .3 

Appetizing     .     . 

•    4 

Time  sav^    .    . 

.    «> 

Value    .... 

.    6 

Scientific  .... 

7 

Ambition  .... 

8 

Family  affection 

Q 

Safety  .... 

10 

Evolution  .... 

II 

Sympathy      .     .     . 

12 

Parental  love      .     . 

13 

Self-defense    .     .     . 

14 

Reputation    .     .    . 

15 

Guaranteed    .     .     . 

16 

Economize     .     .    . 

17 

Appeal 

Elegance  .     . 

.     .  18 

Modern    .     . 

.     .  19 

Hospitality   . 

.     .  20 

Middleman   . 

.     .  21 

Courtesy  .     . 

.     .  22 

Popular    .     .     , 

.    -23 

Growth    .     .    . 

.    .  24 

Hunting   .     . 

.     .  25 

Progress  .    .    . 

.  26 

Quality     .     .     . 

•  27 

Health     .    .     . 

.28 

Amusement  .     . 

.29 

Bargain    .     .     . 

•30 

Necessary     .     . 

•31 

Social  standing . 

.32 

Stimulating  .     . 

•33 

Enormous     .    , 

•34 

Appeal 


Genuine  .  .  . 
Civic  pride  .  . 
Sale  .... 
Patriotism  .  . 
Youth.  .  .  . 
Cheap.  .  .  . 
Recommendation 
Nobby  .  .  . 
Style  .... 
Excel  .... 
Royalty  .  .  . 
Personality  .  . 
Union  made 
Imported  .  . 
Beauty  .  .  . 
Admiration  .     . 


35 
36 
37 
38 

39 

40 

41 
42 
45 
44 
45 
46 

47 
48 

49 
SO 


It  may  be  considered  as  showing  the  relative  strength 
of  the  various  interests  of  the  subjects  when  they  are  in 
the  advertising  frame  of  mind,  which  is  exactly  the  sort 
of  information  which  the  advertising  man  should  desire. 
This  frame  of  mind  is  brought  about  by  the  fact  that 
they  know  that  they  are  being  experimented  upon  in  an 
advertising  experiment. 

These  appeals  can  be  applied  only  to  those  commod- 
ities for  which  there  is  a  felt  need  on  the  part  of  the 
reader.  The  average  man  does  not  care  whether  a 
wireless  telephone  will  transmit  messages  for  one  mile 
or  a  thousand  miles,  for  the  wireless  telephone  is  not  one 
of  his  present  needs.  Therefore,  an  appeal  to  its  dura- 
bility, its  scientific  manufacture,  its  quality,  would  be 
a  waste  of  space.  Such  information  gives  the  reader 
an  interesting  bit  of  scientific  gossip,  but  would  not  sell 
the  article  before  a  need  was  felt  for  it.  The  arousing 
of  consciousness  of  the  need  for  a  given  conmiodity  is  a 


li 


i 


144     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

very  different  psychological  process,  in  which  the  selfish 
or  the  social  motives  must  be  appealed  to. 

Obviously,  the  appeals  mentioned  in  the  above  tables 
are  capable  of  being  grouped  together,  like  going  with 
like.  In  general,  there  seem  to  be  seven  general  classes 
into  which  the  appeals  may  be  divided,  and  imder  these 
seven  main  heads,  there  are  several  sub-heads.  As  an 
attempt  in  this  direction,  the  following  is  submitted : 

Types  of  Appeals 

I.  Description  of  article. 

A.  Definite  information  concerning  intrinsic 
worth. 

B.  Popular,  stylish,  imported,  etc. 

C.  Evolution,  growth,  size  of  plant,  etc. 

D.  Recommendation,    used   by   prominent 

persons. 

E.  Process  of  manufacture. 

n.  Personal  appeal. 

A.  Ambition,  progressiveness,  etc. 

B.  Welfare  of  individual. 

C.  Amusement. 

D.  Beauty. 

III.   Social  appeal. 

A.  Sympathy. 

B.  Soci^  relation  to  others. 

C.  Cooperation  with  an  organized  group. 

TV.   Mixed  social  and  personal. 

A.  Arouse  admiration,  attractive  personality. 

V.  Family. 

VI.   Economy. 

VII.   Something  for  nothing. 
A.  Souvenir  free. 


) 


HOLDING  THE  ATTENTION 


I4S 


Their  relative  importance  is  shown  in  the  following 
table: 


Types  of  Appeal 


L       A.  Description  of  article 

Definite  information  con- 
cerning intrinsic  worth 
ni.    A.  Social  Appeal  —  Sjnnpathy 

V.  Family 

n.     A.  Personal  appeal 

Ambition  and  progress    . 
n.      B.  Personal  appeal 

Welfare  of  individual 
I,       C.  Description  of  article 

Evolution,  growth,  size  of 

plant,  etc 

in.    B.  Social  appeal  —  Social  re- 
lation with  other  indi- 
viduals   

n.     C.  Personal  appeal 

Amusement 

VI.  Economy 

L       B.  Description  of  article 

Popular,      stylish,      im- 
ported, etc 

in.    C.  Social  appeal* 

Cooperation  with  an  or- 
ganized group     .    .    . 
L       D.  Description  of  article 

Recommendation,     used 
by  prominent  persons 
H.     D.  Personal  appeal 

Beauty,  etc 

IV.          Mixed  social  and  personal 
Arouse    admiration,    at- 
tractive personality,  etc. 
I.       E.  Process  of  manufacture .    . 
Vn.         Souvenir  free 


Male 


7-5 
9.0 

10.9 
19.0 
21. 1 

22.9 

26.3 

24-3 
25.2 

32.4 
41. 1 

34.2 
43.8 

45-7 


I 
2 

3 
4 
S 


10 

12 

II 
13 

14 


Feicale 

Both 

7.4s 

19.00 
20.2 

I 

4 
S 

7-5 
12.0 

13-0 

IS-S 

3 

-17.0 

15.3 

2 

17.6 

24.S 

8 

23.0 

24.0 

6 

24.7 

24.0 
3I-I 

7 
9 

27.0 
28.7 

34-9 

10 

34.4 

36.1 

II 

40.3 

47.7 

14 

43-0 

39.8 

12 

44.0 

42.1 

13 

46.7 

I 

2 

3 
4 

S 


8 
9 

10 

II 

12 
13 

14 


The  significant  sex  differences  are  tabulated  in  the 
following  table : 


■«f 


!«' 


r 


i: 


146     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 


Sex  Ditferences 


Female  Appeal 

Amottntop 

DlPFKRF.NCE 

Male  Appeal 

Amount  op 
Difperence 

20.  Health     .... 
14.  Stimulating      .     . 
36.   Genuine       .     .     . 
41.   Patriotism    .     .     . 
30.   Hospitality       .     . 

21.  Quality    .... 
8.  Value       .... 

40.   Civic  pride       .     . 

10.   Ambition      .     .     . 

5.  Time  saved       .     . 

25.  Necessary     .     .     . 

26.  Middleman       .    . 
49.   Beauty    .... 

19.0 

17-5 
15-5 
14.0 

130 
130 
10.5 

lO.O 

8.5 
7.0 

5-5 
5.0 

7.   Family  affection 
16.   Popular       .    .     . 
46.   Royalty      ,    .     . 
38.   Sale        .... 

I.   Scientific     .    .     . 
43.  Recommendation 

9.  Evolution   , 
24.   Sympathy       .    . 
33.   Social  standing     . 
42.  Union  made    .    . 
19.   Modern  .... 

6.  Appetizing       .    . 
45.  Style      .... 

22.5 

20.5 
14.0 

13.0 
12.S 
12.5 
10.5 
lO.O 

95 
9.0 

9.0 

7.0 
6.0 

Several  of  these  sex  differences  are  significant,  (i) 
Women  are  apparently  impressed  much  more  by  the 
personal  appeal  than  are  the  men.  On  the  average, 
they  appear  to  be  more  ambitious,  not  only  for  them- 
selves but  for  their  families. 

(2)  The  economy  argtmient  appeals  to  the  men  more 
than  it  does  to  the  women,  possibly  because  the  men  are 
more  likely  to  be  the  earners.  The  effect  which  differ- 
ences in  wording  of  the  appeal  have  is  interesting.  If  a 
product  is  announced  as  a  "bargain"  or  as  "cheap"  the 
women  are  more  attracted  by  the  appeal  than  the  men. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  it  is  a  "special  sale"  which  is  fea- 
tured, the  men  are  much  more  interested  than  the  women. 

(3)  Men  are  influenced  more  by  indirect  arguments 
than  are  the  women.  This  is  shown  by  the  higher  rank- 
ing of  such  appeals  as  the  size  of  the  plant,  the  remarkable 
growth  of  the  business,  etc.  These  give  him  a  chance 
to  use  his  judgment  and  infer  that  the  article  must  be  a 
superior  brand.  The  man,  also,  is  much  more  likely  to 
accept  the  judgment  of  some  other  person,  of  some 


I 


( 


HOLDING  THE  ATTENTION 


147 


authority  who  is  supposed  to  know  what  he  is  talking 
about. 

(4)  Family  appeals  are  likely  to  be  ranked  higher  by 
the  men  than  by  the  women. 

(5)  The  patriotism  appeal  is  stronger  with  the  women 
than  it  is  with  the  men.  They  seem  to  be  more  in- 
fluenced by  the  welfare  of  the  group,  large  or  small,  to 
which  they  belong. 

Since  abstract  appeals  were  used  to  avoid  reference 
to  any  particular  commodity,  for  no  one  commodity 
will  be  able  to  use  them  all,  it  will  be  interesting  to  see 
how  the  abstract  results  compare  with  those  where 
particular  advertisements  are  used. 

A  considerable  amount  of  work  has  been  done  by 
Strong,  Hollingworth,  and  Starch  to  determine  the  best 
kind  of  appeal  to  make  with  such  goods  as  breakfast 
foods,  pianos,  clothes,  jewelry,  etc.  In  all  a  fairly  large 
group  of  commodities  have  been  tested. 
^  Their  results  as  worked  out  in  accordance  with  the  clas- 
sification suggested  on  page  144,  are  given  in  the  following 
table.  The  first  10  columns  present  the  data  obtained 
from  college  students  and  represent  relatively  homoge- 
neous material.  The  last  column  gives  the  results  of  the 
test  made  upon  97  farmers.  This  group  is  very  different 
fromithe  average  college  group  in  aims,  interests,  and 
education,  so  it  is  not  surprising  that  a  different  order 
was  obtained. 

In  general,  if  the  numbers  in  the  last  ten  columns 
decrease  regularly,  an  exact  correspondence  is  obtained 
between  the  abstract  and  the  concrete  data. 

Several  significant  details  appear  from  a  study  of  the 
table,  (i)  In  the  first  place,  there  seems  to  be  a  definite 
relation  between  the  cost  of  a  commodity  and  the  per- 
suasiveness of  the  economy  appeal.  In  the  case  of 
vacuum  cleaners  and  pianos,  in  a  sense  luxury  articles, 
economy    is    an    important    consideration.    With    the 


ij 


I 


m 


I 


148     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

cheaper  articles,  this  particular  appeal  is  ranked  much 
lower. 

(2)  With  foods,  the  recommendation  of  influential 
persons  is  of  greater  value  than  with  any  of  the  other 
commodities  which  are  listed. 

(3)  The  selfish  appeal  is  the  strongest  one  which  can 
be  used  with  soap  and  shoes,  and  in  general,  with  those 
commodities  which  affect  the  appearance  of  the  user. 


Goods 


L  A. 

m.  A. 

V.  . 

n.  A. 

n.  B. 

I.  c. 

in.  B. 

n.  c. 

VI.  . 
I.  B. 

in.  c. 

I,  D. 

n.  D. 

IV.  . 

I.  E. 

VII. 


Appeal 


I 

2 

3 

4 

S 
6 

7 
8 

9 
10 

II 

12 

13 
14 


I 

I 


I 

7 

2 
6 


S 
8 


4 
9 


U 


5 
6 


7 
3 
4 


o 

CO 


I 
3 


7 
S 
6 


4 
2 

S 
6 


I 

3 
4 


6 

7 


H 


I 


I 

5 


8 
6 

7 
3 


< 

> 


4 
5 


5 
I 


3 
2 

4 
6 


as 


23? 


9 
2 


6 

4 


S 
3 

8 
7 


A  different  type  of  experiment  was  performed  to  throw 
some  additional  light  upon  the  problem  of  the  relative 
strength  of  the  different  interest  incentives  in  arousing 
attention.  In  this  case,  pictures  were  used.  The 
technique  and  the  method  were  the  same  that  were 
employed  in   the  previous  attention  experiments.    A 


\ 


HOLDING  THE  ATTENTION 


149 


series  of  cards,  divided  to  represent  the  quarter  page, 
was  prepared ;  and  in  the  lower  right-hand  corner  of  each 
was  pasted  a  picture.  The  other  three  corners  were 
occupied  by  squares  of  color.  These  cards  were  ex- 
posed for  a  fraction  of  a  second  and  the  observer  was 
requested  to  write  down  everything  that  entered  con- 
sciousness, in  the  order  in  which  it  came.  Fifty-two 
men  and  seventy-eight  women  were  experimented  upon. 
The  total  number  of  times  each  picture  was  seen  first 
was  used  as  the  measure  of  its  attention  value. 

Since  the  pictures  were  of  different  areas,  size  was 
allowed  for  in  the  following  way.  The  attention  value 
of  size  for  this  position  on  the  page,  the  lower  right 
comer,  was  determined  and  a  curve  drawn.  By  inter- 
polating the  various  points  on  the  curve,  it  was  possible 
to  obtain  the  probable  number  of  times  that  a  color 
of  a  certain  area  in  that  position  would  be  seen  first. 
The  total  number  of  credits  which  the  picture  received 
was  compared  with  the  number  which  a  color  of  the  same 
size  would  have  received.  In  this  way,  the  attention 
value  of  the  picture  was  determined.  Colored  pictures 
were  not  used,  so  no  correction  was  necessary  on  that  score. 

The  pictures  were  in  black  and  white,  so  that  the 
total  impression  produced  by  them  was  of  a  gray.  As 
a  consequence,  the  contrast  made  with  the  white  back- 
ground was  less  than  with  the  colors.  As  a  result,  it 
was  found  that  the  pictures  had  less  attention  value 
than  the  colors  in  the  same  position. 

Several  of  the  pictures  can  be  grouped  together,  form- 
ing one  general  class.  In  giving  the  results,  this  will 
be  taken  account  of  for  the  purpose  of  simplification. 
In  the  table  below  the  figures  show  that  the  picture  was 
seen  first  so  many  times  more  or  less  than  a  color  of  the 
same  size.  When  no  sign  is  used,  it  will  indicate  that 
the  picture  had  a  greater  attention  value  than  the  color ; 
when  a  minus  sign  precedes  the  number,  it  will  indicate 
that  the  picture  was  seen  less  frequently  than  the  color. 


I.J 


ISO     ADVERTISING  AND   ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 


PicnraE 

Women 

Men 

Both 

StorVinff              ....... 

3-2 

—  2.0 

6.3 

4.5 

-7.5 

4.0 
0.0 

—  1.2 

2.5 

-  1.3 

7.0 

StorkinsT  .....•••• 

-    3.0 

Shoes 

4.6 

SlinnpTS          ..•••>•• 

7.0 

Shoes 

-    9.0 

0.9 

0.78 

1.3 

Virtrola    .....•••• 

-  I7.I 

-  12.0 

-  15.0 

-  6.5 

-  5.1 
1.0 

-  9.0 

-  5.0 

-  8.4 

-  8.0 

-  7-4 

-  1.5 

-  7.0 

-  2.0 

-  1.0 

-  5.7 

-  3.8 

3-7 
1.0 

2-5 

-  2.0 

-  2.1 

-  5.5 
1.2 

-  0.7 

o.S 

-  4.0 

0.4 

-  18.0 

Stftampr          ..«..••• 

—  17.0 

Phone      

-  18.8 

Train        

-    3.5 

Watch 

-    4.0 

Watch 

3.5 

TRpvolver 

-  lo.s 

Revolver  ......••• 

-    6.8 

Camera    ......••• 

—  14.0 

Auto         .••• 

-    6.5 

Auto         ...•-••-• 

-    8.0 

Typewriter 

Pool  table 

Chair 

—  1.0 

—  lo-S 

—  2.2 

-    7.35 

—    I.I 

-8.3s 

Rooks .....••••• 

-  12.3 

-  7.0 

-  4.3 

-  4.0 

—  16.0 

Books 

-  lo.s 

-    9-7 

-    4.2 

-  133 

Moose      .....«••< 

-  16.6 

-  3.6 

-  6.0 

-13.8 

-  7.0 

-  2.4 

-  2.3 

-  4-0 

-  5-9 

-  4-7 

—  19.1 

Cows 

Chick 

-  7.0 

—  1 0.0 

TVoCTS             ....••••• 

—  19.2 

BuU 

—  II.O 

-    9.4 

-    3.86 

-  13.3 

Bull  Durham  Sack 

Velvet  Tobacco  Tin 

-  16.5 

-  16.7 

-  2.4 

-  5.0 

—  19.0 

—  21.0 

-  16.6 

-    3.7 

—  20.0 

HOLDING  THE   ATTENTION 


151 


PiCTDKE 

Women 

Men 

Both 

Man 

-  25.4 

-  13.6 

-  lo.s 

-  0.3 
1.0 

-  6.7 

-  9.4 

-  6.0 

-  4.8 
1.3 

Man  — B.  V.  D 

Man 

32.0 

-  23.0 

—  16.0 

Man 

Man 

5.4 

2.5 

-    9.8 

-    5.1 

-  14.8 

Girl 

-  23.6 
-18.3 

-  13.1 

-  8.3 

-  9.5 

-  2.3 

-  3-3 

-  3.3 

Girl 

33.0 

Girl 

20.0 
—  16.2 

Girl 

II.O 

-  15-7 

-    4.6 

—  20.0 

Boy  and  Girl 

-28.S 

-  13.4 

—  42.2 

Candy     

-33-0 

—  9.0 

—  22.0 

—  9.5 

—  18.0 

—  2.2 

-  14.2 

-  5-2 

-  5.2 

-  5.3 

-  7.4 

-  4.6 

Chocolates 

Occident  Flour 

Shredded  Wheat 

Nabisco 

47.0 

-  14.4 

-  27.0 

-  15.0 

Coflfee  Can 

15.0 
-    7.3 

-  15.6 

-    6.9 

—  21.0 

Putting  the  summaries  together,  the  following  table 
is  obtained : 


Picture 


Wearing  apparel    . 
Commodity  —  tools 

Books 

Animals  .... 

Men" 

Tobacco  .... 
Women    .... 

Foods  

Boy  and  Girl    .    . 


Women 


0.9 

7-4 

9.7 
9.4 

9.8 

16.6 

15.7 
15.6 
28.5 


Men 


0.7 
I.I 
4.2 

3.9 
5.1 
3.7 
4.6 
6.9 

13.4 


Both 


1-3 

-  8.4 

-  13.3 

-  13.3 

-  14.8 

—  20.0 

—  20.0 

—  21.0 

—  42.2 


t  I 


« 


152     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

The  results  show  that  of  the  pictures  used,  those  most 
likely  to  catch  the  attention  are  of  shoes  and  stockings. 
The  picture  of  a  commodity  partaking  of  the  nature  of 
a  tool,  a  mechanical  contrivance  of  some  sort,  is  next  on 
the  list.  Books  and  animals  come  next,  followed  by 
pictures  of  men.  Pictures  of  women  and  of  tobacco 
are  tied  for  next  place,  foods  come  next,  whereas  the 
famous  picture,  "A  skin  you  love  to  touch,"  was  ranked 

last. 

Some  few  sex  differences  appear,  women  rankmg 
pictures  of  men  relatively  higher  and  the  men  being  more 
attracted  by  pictures  of  women.  Men's  attention  was 
much  more  quickly  caught  by  tobacco  pictures  and  the 
women's  somewhat  more  easily  by  pictures  of  food. 


CHAPTER  X 
Association 

The  advertiser  can  expect  immediate  action  in  re- 
sponse to  his  advertisement  in  a  very  small  percentage 
of  cases.  Usually,  a  period  of  some  duration  elapses 
between  the  reading  of  the  advertisement  and  the  pur- 
chasing of  the  commodity,  provided  that  it  is  purchased 
at  all.  Under  these  conditions  the  reader  or  possible 
purchaser  may  do  one  of  three  things.  He  may  either 
cut  the  advertisement  out  of  the  magazine  or  paper  and 
carry  it  aroimd  with  him  until  occasion  for  the  purchase 
arises,  or  he  may  note  down  on  paper  some  salient 
feature  of  the  advertisement,  or  he  may  remember  it. 
Usually,  the  third  method  is  employed.  It  is  imperative 
therefore  that  the  advertiser  should  know  how  to  make 
his  advertisements  remembered  by  the  reader.  Since 
the  basis  of  all  memory  is  association,  it  is  necessary 
that  we  imderstand  the  laws  of  association,  both  the 
formation  of  associations  and  the  laws  of  recall. 

Formation  of  Associations.  —  The  general  law  of  the 
formation  of  associations  is  that  if  two  ideas,  A  and  B, 
enter  consciousness  together,  or  in  immediate  succes- 
sion, whenever,  at  a  later  time,  one  appears  in  conscious- 
ness, the  other  will  tend  to  follow  it.  Whenever  A 
appears  in  consciousness,  B  will  tend  to  appear  immedi- 
ately after  it.  If  the  idea  "soap"  appears,  it  is  very 
likely  to  be  followed  by  "Ivory";  if  the  original  idea 
is  "gim,"  "Winchester"  is  very  likely  to  be  the  next 
idea  that  enters  consciousness.    The  law  as  stated  is 

IS3 


154     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

simple,  easily  understood,  and  will  be  questioned  by  no 
one.  The  explanation  of  the  law  offers  very  much  more 
difficulty.  Tlie  probable  explanation  is  in  terms  of  the 
action  of  the  brain.  There  is  for  instance  no  a  priori 
reason  why  the  soimd  of  a  bell  should  call  up  a  mental 
picture  of  the  clock  or  the  tower  or  the  building  which 
contains  the  bell,  but  such  is  often  the  case.  The  sound 
of  the  bell  and  the  appearance  of  the  container  of  the 
bell  are  not  at  all  alike.  There  is  nothing  which  should 
connect  them  rather  than  anything  else  which  might 
occur.  A  possible  principle  of  connection  is  to  be  found 
in  the  fact  that  the  two  ideas  enter  consciousness  to- 
gether or  in  immediate  succession.  This  means  that 
the  two  regions  of  the  brain  which  are  concerned  with 
the  ideas  are  active  simultaneously  or  in  succession. 
If  we  take  the  example  of  the  soimd  of  a  bell  calling  up 
a  visual  image  of  a  tower,  the  formation  of  the  association 
is  somewhat  as  follows.  The  sound  of  the  bell  is  heard, 
owing  to  the  stimulation  of  the  auditory  region  of  the 
brain;  for  the  vibrations  in  the  outer  air  are  trans- 
formed into  a  nerve  current  in  the  ear  and  this  nerve 
current  is  carried  by  means  of  the  auditory  nerve  to  the 
brain.  Once  in  the  brain,  it  does  not  cease  its  activity, 
but  sooner  or  later  goes  over  to  the  motor  region,  arous- 
ing some  movement.  The  movement  in  this  case  is  a 
turning  of  the  head  or  body  until  the  source  of  the  soxmd 
is  determined.  When  the  tower  is  seen,  a  nerve  current 
goes  from  the  retina  of  the  eye  to  the  visual  region  of  the 
brain  and  we  connect  the  two  experiences  in  conscious- 
ness. Thus  the  two  regions  in  the  brain,  the  visual  and 
the  auditory,  are  active  at  the  same  time  or  in  immediate 
succession.  In  addition  to  arousing  the  movement,  the 
nerve  current  which  came  to  the  auditory  region  goes 
also  to  the  association  area  which  connects  the  various 
sensory  regions.  Once  there,  it  is  possible  for  the  nerve 
current  to  go  in  any  number  of  directions  if  chance 


ASSOCIATION 


IS5 


4 


alone  were  operative.  But  while  the  auditory  energy 
is  in  the  association  region,  the  visual  region  is  stimu- 
lated. Any  region  which  is  active  behaves  like  a  partial 
vacuum,  pulling  other  bits  of  nerve  current  towards 
itself.  Because  of  this  fact,  the  current  which  came  from 
the  auditory  region  is  directed  towards  the  visual  region. 
In  the  course  of  its  going,  it  passes  over  several  synapses, 
lowering  their  resistance  as  it  goes.  A  second  like  ex- 
perience will  lower  the  resistance  still  further,  until 
finally  there  is  formed  a  pathway  of  low  resistance  be- 
tween the  two  regions.  Subsequently,  when  the  same 
auditory  region  is  stimulated,  the  nerve  current,  which 
goes  along  the  path  of  least  resistance,  will  go  directly 
to  the  visual  region,  arousing  the  idea  of  the  tower. 
This  is  the  way  in  which  all  of  our  associations  are 
formed,  because  of  the  simultaneous  or  successive  action 
of  two  brain  regions.  The  association,  consequently, 
is  nothing  more  than  the  formation  of  a  pathway  of 
low  resistance  between  two  brain  regions. 

Laws  of  Recall.  —  The  only  way  of  testing  the  strength 
of  an  association  is  in  terms  of  recall.  Recall  is  possible 
only  when  there  is  a  pathway  of  low  resistance  between 
two  brain  regions,  so  that  a  nerve  current  getting  into 
one  will  automatically  go  to  the  other.  It  must  be 
understood  throughout,  that  ideas  are  never  retained 
nor  are  they  associated.  Association  exists  only  be- 
tween brain  tracts,  and  ideas  are  the  result  of  the  re- 
stimulation  of  modified  brain  regions.  A  good  analogy 
is  to  be  found  in  the  case  of  the  phonograph  record. 
Sound  is  not  stored  in  the  record ;  nothing  is  there  but 
a  series  of  tiny  indentations  which  are  connected  by  a 
groove.  After  the  record  is  made,  a  blunt  needle  is 
passed  over  the  indentations,  causing  a  vibration  of  the 
diaphragm  to  which  the  needle  is  attached  and  a  re- 
arousal  of  the' sound  which  made  the  original  inden- 
tations. 


r 


I 


•S6     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 


i\ 


^ 


h,i 


Similarly,  we  may  think  of  the  nerve  current  as  having 
made  a  padi  between  two  brain  regions  and  in  addition 
as  having  modified  each  in  a  certain  definite  way.  A 
new  nerve  current  gets  into  one  of  the  regions  and,  in 
passing  over  the  modifications,  it  re-arouses  the  con- 
sciousness which  was  present  when  the  modifications 
were  made.  Then  going  along  the  pathway  of  low 
resistance,  it  passes  on  to  the  other  modified  brain 
region,  re-arousing  the  consciousness  which  was  there 
when  that  series  of  modifications  was  made.  It  is  only 
in  this  way  that  ideas  are  retained  and  recalled.  The 
recalled  idea  is  probably  never  a  complete  and  exact 
copy  of  the  original,  but  is  sufficient  to  represent  it  in 
part  or  in  whole. 

Recall  depends  upon  several  groups  of  principles. 
In  the  first  group  there  are  four  —  contiguity,  succession, 
similarity,  and  contrast.  In  the  second,  there  are  four  — 
primacy,  recency,  frequency,  and  intensity.  In  the 
third  there  are  six  —  idea  in  mind,  purpose,  attitude, 
education,  social  pressure,  and  heredity,  the  same  which 
were  found  to  be  the  subjective  conditions  of  attention. 
Each  of  these  laws  is  simply  a  way  of  accoimting  for  the 
relative  lack  of  resistance  at  any  time  in  the  various 
possible  pathways  in  the  nervous  system. 

By  contiguity  and  succession  are  meant  recall  owing 
to  simultaneous  or  successive  entrance  into  consciousness 
of  two  ideas.  If  two  ideas  which  enter  consciousness 
are  connected  by  a  pathway  of  low  resistance,  it  ought 
to  follow  that  when  one  was  present  in  consciousness, 
the  other  one  would  be  called  up.  This  follows  from  the 
law  of  the  formation  of  associations.  It  usually  happens, 
however,  that  each  idea  which  we  have  is  associated  not 
only  with  one,  but  with  many  others.  Soap  may  call 
up  Pear's,  Babbit's,  Packer's  Tar,  or  Cuticura,  as  well 
as  Ivory.  Gun  may  call  up  Sharp,  Savage,  or  Marlin, 
as  well  as  Winchester.    Each  of  these  associations  has 


ASSOCIATION 


157 


{ 


^ 


been  formed  by  either  contiguity  or  succession,  and 
so  has,  other  things  being  equal,  an  equal  chance  of 
being  brought  to  mind  when  soap  or  gun  happens  to 
be  thought  of.  The  other  laws  are  to  explain  why  one 
and  then  another  associate  may  be  recalled  at  different 
times. 

Association  by  similarity  is  a  complex  depending  upon 
two  associations  by  contiguity  with  a  common  element. 
An  example  will  make  this  clear.  If  we  say  that  a 
darkey  is  black,  that  is  an  association  by  contiguity. 
If  we  say  that  the  ace  of  spades  is  black,  that  is  another 
association  by  contiguity.  If  we  put  the  two  together, 
and  say  that  the  darkey  is  as  black  as  the  ace  of  spades, 
that  is  an  association  by  similarity,  the  common  element 
being  the  word  black.  There  is  a  pathway  in  the  brain 
connecting  the  "darkey"  region  and  the  *^ black" 
region  and  another  connecting  the  "black"  region  with 
the  "ace  of  spades"  region.  In  this  way  it  is  possible 
to  connect  mentally  two  things  which  never  could  have 
been  associated  by  contiguity  or  succession. 

Similarly,  in  association  by  contrast,  there  must  be 
a  common  element  between  two  associations  by  con- 
tiguity. We  find  it  impossible  to  contrast  warm  and 
sour,  or  loud  and  cold,  for  these  experiences  have  noth- 
ing in  common.  We  can,  however,  contrast  big  and 
little,  rich  and  poor,  for  in  these  cases,  we  encoimter  a 
common  element,  in  the  first  case  surface  being  under- 
stood, and  in  the  second,  some  standard  of  wealth. 

The  second  set  of  laws  determine  why  one  thing  is 
thought  of  rather  than  some  other.  They  show  why 
one  pathway  which  has  been  formed  by  contiguity  or 
succession  is  more  permeable  at  some  particular  instant 
than  some  other.  Any  brain  pathway  is  liable  to  fluc- 
tuations in  its  resistance.  Lack  of  use  will  raise  resist- 
ance, use  will  lower  it.  Fatigue  will  increase  it.  The 
laws  of  intensity,  recency,  frequency,  and  primacy  are 


I»    I 


158     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

simply  ways  of  stating  the  reasons  for  the  relative 
amount  of  resistance  which  exists  at  any  time. 

An  intense  stimulus  will  decrease  the  resistance  more 
than  a  milder  one,  so  that  those  two  regions  in  the  brain 
which  have  been  joined  by  intense  stimuli  will  tend  to 
have  a  very  permeable  pathway  for  some  little  time  after 
the  connection  is  made.  By  the  term  intensity  of 
stimulus  several  things  may  be  meant.  Sheer  amount 
of  stimulus,  as  a  very  bright  light,  is  one  meaning ;  a 
large  stimulus,  as  a  full  page  advertisement,  is  another; 
and  a  stimulus  which  endures  for  some  little  time,  is 
still  a  different  meaning.  Lastly,  if  the  stimulus  arouses 
an  emotion,  it  is  referred  to  as  an  intense  stimulus,  for 
usually  an  emotion  means  a  large  amount  of  nerve 
action  going  on  in  the  cortex  of  the  brain.  Any  of  these 
conditions  will  tend  to  make  a  relatively  permanent 
connection  of  low  resistance  between  two  brain  tracts. 

Recency  of  stimulation  is  effective  because  the  re- 
sistance offered  by  the  pathway  is  temporarily  decreased, 
though  it  may  soon  become  greater. 

Frequency  of  stimulation  or  connection  is  another 
factor,  for  if  the  pathway  is  traversed  frequently  by  a 
nerve  current,  the  resistance  is  being  constantly  worn 
down,  and  there  is  no  very  great  chance  for  it  to  increase. 

Primacy  as  a  factor  is  more  diflScult  to  explain,  being 
probably  a  complex  of  certain  others.  Any  first  ex- 
perience is  likely  to  be  accompanied  by  considerable 
emotion;  consequently,  primacy  would  reduce  on  the 
one  hand  to  intensity.  In  the  second  place,  our  earlier 
experiences  serve  as  patterns  or  standards  for  our  sub- 
sequent ones.  They  must  be  frequently  referred  to; 
and,  consequently,  primacy  may  be  operative  for  the 
same  reason  that  frequency  is.  Experiment  shows  that 
the  factor  of  primacy  is  of  considerable  importance. 

"  .  .  .  .  When  two  associations  are  of  equal  strength 
but  of  unlike  age,  repetitions  act  more  effectively  on 


ASSOCIATION 


ISO 


1 


the  elder  than  on  the  younger.  .  .  .  When  two  asso- 
ciations are  of  equal  strength,  but  of  unlike  age,  time 
has  a  more  marked  effect  on  the  younger  than  on  the 
older  association."  ^ 

The  relative  strength  of  these  four  factors  is  a  matter 
of  some  importance  for  the  advertising  man.  Miss 
Calkins  2  performed  an  experiment  to  test  the  relative 
strength  of  association  by  recency,  frequency,  vividness, 
and  primacy.  Her  first  set  of  material  consisted  of 
colors  and  numbers,  the  requirement  being  to  establish 
an  association  between  them.  The  color  was  shown 
first  and  immediately  after  the  number  appeared.  After 
an  eight-second  interval,  another  color  was  shown,  fol- 
lowed immediately  by  another  number.  The  two  things 
which  were  to  be  associated  were  given  in  immediate 
succession,  while  a  longer  pause  separated  the  stimuli 
which  were  not  to  be  associated.  In  another  part  of 
the  experiment,  the  color  and  the  number  appeared  to- 
gether. This  is  called  the  simultaneous  association, 
the  former  the  successive. 

Frequency  was  obtained  by  having  the  same  color 
and  the  same  number  appear  two  or  three  times  in  the 
series,  whereas  the  normal  was  obtained  by  having  the 
same  color  appear  once  with  a  different  mmiber.  For 
example,  violet  appeared  in  one  series  three  times  fol- 
lowed by  the  number  61,  and  it  appeared  again  followed 
by  the  number  26.  The  normal  association  for  violet 
was  determined  by  the  number  of  times  26  was  given 
when  the  color  was  shown.  The  effect  of  frequency  was 
determined  by  the  number  of  times  61  was  mentioned. 
This  method  does  not  take  account  of  generative  in- 
hibition, but  since  its  effect  would  work  against  the  recall 
of  both  numbers,  it  is  quite  possible  that  the  ratio  ob- 
tained between  the  normal  association  and  the  frequency 

» Myers,  "  Textbook  of  Experimental  Psychology,"  pages  1 73-1 75- 
"Calkins,  "  Psy.  Rev.  Mon.  Sup.,"  II :  No.  2. 


"• 


If 


1 60     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

association  represents  approximately  the  correct  figure. 
If  anything,  the  figure  is  slightly  too  low. 

Vividness  was  usually  obtained  by  showing  a  three 
or  one  place  number,  after  the  color  had  appeared,  or 
by  decreasing  the  size  of  the  numbers  or,  instead  of 
having  black  on  a  white  background,  by  using  red 
figures. 

Recency  was  obtained  by  considering  the  color  which 
appeared  in  last  place  in  relation  to  the  same  color  ap- 
pearing in  the  middle  of  the  series  with  a  different 
number.  Primacy  was  obtained  in  the  same  way  by 
considering  the  first  color  which  appeared. 

Out  of  1300  series  of  all  types,  it  was  found  that  26.1 
per  cent  was  remembered  in  the  long  series,  those  con- 
taining 10  or  12  pairs,  and  35.2  per  cent  in  the  series 
containing  7  pairs  of  associations.  In  some  cases  the 
frequency  associations  were  formed  with  three  appear^ 
ances,  sometimes  with  two,  of  the  same  color  and  number. 

If  we  disregard  absolutely  the  half  credits  given  when 
one  number  of  the  two  was  called  up,  as  we  have  a  per- 
fect right  to  do  in  applying  the  results  to  advertising 
where  complete  recall  is  imperative,  the  following  list 
of  ratios  is  worked  out : 

Normal       i.cx) 

Frequency  (2) 1.54 

Frequency  (3) 2.05 

Vividness 2.15 

Recency 1.96 

Primacy 1.35 

Recency  is  evidently  a  stronger  principle  of  con- 
nection than  primacy.  Both  frequency  and  vividness 
are  stronger  than  recency.  But  when  we  try  to  compare 
frequency  and  vividness,  difficulties  are  encountered, 
for  they  are  both  so  variable.  Under  the  conditions  of 
the  experiment,  vividness  is  slightly  stronger  than  fre- 
quency when  the  pair  of  stimuli  were  repeated  three 


ASSOCIATION 


161 


times.  Had  they  been  given  four  times,  however, 
frequency  would  imdoubtedly  have  been  stronger. 
Under  the  conditions  of  the  experiment,  the  stimuli 
could  not  have  been  strikingly  vivid.  Had  they  been 
more  so,  the  effect  of  vividness  would  have  been  in- 
creased. That  the  degree  of  vividness  is  a  determining 
factor  is  indicated  by  the  following  table,  which  shows 
the  different  results  obtained  for  the  different  vivid 
stimuli  which  were  used : 


3  digits 

3.60 

2  small  digits 

1.74 

2  digits,  red 

2.16 

3  digits,  red 

2.27 

In  order  to  determine  the  relative  effect  of  vividness 
and  frequency,  in  connection  with  the  memory  of  actual 
advertisements,  the  following  experiment  was  devised. 

The  task  we  set  ourselves  was  to  determine  the  relative 
value  of  a  full  page  advertisement  appearing  once,  a 
half  page  appearing  twice,  a  quarter  page  appearing 
four  times,  and  an  eighth  page  advertisement  appearing 
eight  times.  This  investigation  is  connected  with  the 
experiments  on  intensity,  frequency,  etc.,  because  size 
is  merely  one  form  of  intensity,  so  we  are  studying  the 
relation  of  intensity  and  frequency  of  stimulation  in 
forming  associations. 

Scott  ^  was  the  first  to  attack  experimentally  the 
problem  of  the  relative  memory  value  of  advertisements 
of  different  sizes.  His  material  was  composed  of  100 
pages  of  advertising  matter,  consisting  of  43  fuU  pages, 
15  half  pages,  36  quarter  pages  and  93  smaller  sized 
advertisements.  These  advertisements  were  bound  into 
the  back  of  a  current  magazine  and  shown  to  50  persons, 
17  men  and  33  women.  Some  of  his  subjects  mentioned 
as  many  as  30  advertisements,  while  one  man  was  unable 

» Scott,  W.  D.,  "The  Psychology  of  Advertising,"  pages  165-177. 


HI 


^ 


^r 


162     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

to  recall  a  single  one  that  he  had  seen.  They  were 
tested  for  both  recall  and  recognition  memory.  His 
results  for  miscellaneous  advertisements  follow.  The 
figures  in  the  table  indicate  the  average  number  of 
times  each  advertisement  was  mentioned. 


Fxju. 

Half 

Quarter 

Small 

Recall 

Recognition .    .    . 

6.S4 
12.65 

2.73 
7.87 

1.08 
3-39 

O.IS 
0.37 

He  concludes:  "In  all  these  cases  it  was  found  that 
the  full  page  advertisement  was  more  than  twice  as 
effective  as  a  half  page  advertisement ;  a  half  page  was 
more  than  twice  as  effective  as  a  quarter  page,  and  a 
quarter  page  was  more  effective  than  a  quarter  page  of 
small  advertisements."  ^ 

One  possible  source  of  error  in  his  experiment  comes 
from  the  fact  that  many  of  his  full  page  advertisements, 
such  as  Ivory  Soap,  must  have  been  very  familiar  to  his 
subjects  before  they  began  the  experiment.  The  famil- 
iarity undoubtedly  raised  the  average  of  the  full  page 
advertisements.  Indeed,  the  full  page  advertisements 
are  undoubtedly  somewhat  more  familiar  to  the  average 
reader  than  are  the  other  sizes. 

Mujisterberg,2  using  advertisements  the  size  of  those 
contained  in  the  Saturday  Evening  Post,  performed  a 
variation  of  Scott's  experiment.  Six  full  page  adver- 
tisements appeared  once,  12  half  page  advertisements 
were  shown  twice,  the  quarter  pages  four  times,  the 
dghth  pages  eight  times,  and  the  twelfth  pages  twelve 
times.  These  advertisements  were  mounted  on  60  sheets 
of  Bristol  board  and  shown  to  30  persons,  20  men  and  10 

»  Scott,  W.  D.,  "The  Psychology  of  Advertising,"  pages  m-m, 
•  MOnsterberg,  H,  "Harvard  Studies,"  m,  pages  263-286. 


ASSOCIATION 


163 


women.  Each  page  was  looked  at  for  exactly  20  seconds. 
If  either  the  name  of  the  article  or  the  name  of  the  firm 
was  remembered,  the  advertisement  received  half  credit ; 
if  both  were  remembered,  it  received  full  credit.  The 
memory  value  was  determined  by  dividing  the  average 
for  eadb  size  by  the  number  of  individuals  who  per- 
formed the  experiment. 

The  maximum  number  of  advertisements  recalled 
by  any  one  person  was  46;  the  minimum,  18.  The 
average  memory  value  per  advertisement  was  .44. 
The  different  sizes,  however,  had  different  memory 
values,  which  are  given  below. 


Full  page 
Half  page 
Quarter  page 
Eighth  page 
Twelfth  page 


.33 
.30 

.49 
•44 
.47 


Certain  sex  differences  appeared,  though  only  the 
following  ones  are  noted  by  Munsterberg.  For  the 
quarter  page,  the  masculine  value  was  .51 ;  the  feminine, 
.45 ;  while  for  the  eighth  page  the  men  obtained  an 
average  of  .37 ;  the  women,  of  .53.  This  would  indicate 
that  men  have  better  memories  for  the  quarter  page 
and  the  women  for  the  eighth  page  advertisements. 

Strong  ^  used  288  advertisements  which  were  arranged 
to  meet  the  following  situations : 

12  firms  using  full  pages  and  advertising  4  times. 
12  firms  using  full  pages  and  advertising  2  times. 
24  firms  using  full  pages  and  advertising  i  time. 

12  firms  using  half  pages  and  advertising  4  times. 
12  firms  using  half  pages  and  advertising  2  times. 
24  firms  using  half  pages  and  advertising  i  time. 

12  firms  using  fourth  pages  and  advertising  4  times. 
12  firms  using  fourth  pages  and  advertising  2  times. 
24  firms  using  fourth  pages  and  advertising  i  time. 

» Strong,  E.  K.,  "Psy.  Rev.,"  Vol.  XXI,  pages  136-152. 


i'' 


i64     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

Twenty-one  subjects  were  shown  the  sheets  contain- 
ing these  advertisements  at  a  uniform  rate  of  one  sheet 
per  second,  while  another  i8  looked  them  through  at 
their  leisure. 

**  The  four  sets  of  advertisements  were  shown  to  the 
subjects  a  month  apart.  One  month  later  they  were 
tested  as  to  their  remembrance  of  what  had  been  shown 
them.  In  this  test  the  last  advertisement  they  had 
seen  was  shown  them  from  each  firm  together  with  an 
equal  number  of  wrong  advertisements.  They  were 
instructed  to  pick  out  all  the  advertisements  which  they 
had  seen  previously  in  the  test.  If  they  were  sure  any 
advertisement  had  been  seen  before,  they  were  instructed 
to  pick  it  out.  Moreover,  if  they  were  not  sure  that  the 
advertisement  before  them  was  the  one  they  had  seen, 
but  were  sure  that  it  was  the  same  firm,  that  was  suf ^ 
ficient.''  1 

He  found  that  those  who  looked  the  pages  over  at 
their  leisure  spent  three  and  a  half  times  as  long  on  the 
advertisements  as  those  who  looked  at  each  page  for 
one  second  and  that  the  former  remembered  three  times 
as  much  as  the  latter.  His  general  results  and  con- 
clusions he  sums  up  briefly  and  ably  in  the  following 
paragraph. 

"It  is  very  evident,  then,  that  for  the  same  total 
amount  of  space  used  during  four  months  one  obtains 
a  greater  permanency  of  impression  by  using  in  the  same 
magazine  large  space  and  less  often  than  by  using  small 
space  and  more  frequently.  It  is  very  easy  to  see  that 
diis  must  be  the  case  in  this  particular  situation,  for 
permanency  of  impression  increases  approximately  as 
the  square  root  of  the  space  used,  but  only  as  the  cube 
root  of  the  number  of  presentations.  Hence,  to  repeat, 
the  same  amount  of  space  used  in  large  advertisements 
seldom  repeated  must  be  more  effective  for  permanent 

1  Strong,  E.  K.,  "Psy.  Rev.,"  Vol.  XXI,  page  138. 


3 


ASSOCIATION 


165 


impression  than  when  used  in  smaD  advertisements 
more  frequently  repeated."  ^ 

While  the  results  of  this  experiment  do  not  bear 
directly  upon  our  particular  problem,  there  is  an  in- 
direct reference.  If  we  go  through  his  tables  and  obtain 
the  average  memory  value  of  the  four  times  repeated 
quarter  page,  the  twice  repeated  half  page,  and  the  full 
page  shown  once,  and  reduce  these  to  ratios,  we  obtain 
the  following : 

Quarter  page  shown  4  times  has  a  ratio  of  i.oo 
Half  page  shown  2  times  has  a  ratio  of  1.06  • 
Full  page  shown  i  time  has  a  ratio  of  1.32. 

The  object  of  our  experiment  was  to  discover  the 
meniory  relationship  existing  between  a  full  page  ad- 
vertisement appearing  once,  a  half  page  advertisement 
appearing  twice,  a  quarter  page  advertisement  appear- 
ing four  times,  and  an  eighth  page  advertisement  ap- 
pearing eight  times.  By  this  method,  each  adver- 
tisement occupied  eventually  the  same  amount  of 
space.  The  small  advertisements  were,  however,  re- 
peated increasingly  more  times  the  smaller  they  became, 
so  that  they  appeared  i,  2,  4,  and  8  times.  Put  in  other 
words,  the  repetitions  increased  in  geometrical  progres- 
sion. But  as  the  nimiber  of  repetitions  increased  in 
this  manner,  the  area  decreased  in  a  geometrical  progres- 
sion. This  means  that  we  compared  the  influence  of 
two  factors,  size  and  frequency  of  stimulation,  in  forming 
associations.  Strong's  results,  mentioned  above,  show 
that  size  is  the  more  important  factor. 

Strong's  results  indicate,  in  the  second  place,  that, 
to  obtain  the  maximum  effect,  the  space  should  not  be 
divided.  Divided  repetitions  of  the  space  are  less  ef- 
fective than  the  sunultaneous  presentation  of  the  total 
space  at  one  time.  On  both  counts,  these  conclusions 
may  be  indicted  by  the  traditional  psychology. 

1  Strong,  E.  K.,  "Psy.  Rev.,"  Vol.  XXI,  page  148. 


%\ 


•     It 


i66     ADVERTISING  AND   ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

The  material  used  in  the  experiment  was  taken  from 
the  October,  1913,  number  of  the  Cosmopolitan  Magazine, 
Several  advertisements  were  cut  from  the  advertising 
section  and  a  total  of  24  selected,  6  full  pages,  6  half 
pages,  and  the  same  number  of  quarter  and  eighth  pages. 
Care  was  taken  to  eliminate  those  advertisements  which 
were  of  great  familiarity.  The  necessary  duplications 
were  secured  from  7  other  copies  of  the  same  magazine. 
In  all  there  were :  —  one  copy  of  each  of  the  six  full  page 
advertisements,  two  copies  of  each  of  the  half  page 
advertisements,  four  of  each  of  the  quarter  pages  and 
eight  of  each  of  the  eighth  pages. 

These  advertisements  were  neatly  mounted  on  the 
pages  of  a  portion  of  the  advertising  section  of  one  of 
the  magazines  in  such  a  manner  that  no  two  appeared 
on  any  one  page.  These  pages,  24  in  all,  were  inserted 
in  the  back  of  a  magazine  from  which  all  other  adver- 
tising matter  had  been  removed.  When  completed,  the 
dimimy  resembled  an  ordinary  magazine  in  all  respects. 

Each  subject  was  handed  the  dummy  and  asked  to 
look  over  the  advertising  section  for  5  minutes.  When 
the  alloted  time  had  expired,  he  was  asked  to  write  down 
all  the  advertisements  he  remembered  and  everything 
in  them  that  he  recalled.  These  were  the  only  directions 
given. 

Records  were  received  from  200  subjects,  100  men  and 
100  women,  students  in  the  course  in  Introductory 
Psychology  at  the  University  of  Michigan.  In  the 
experiments  performed  during  the  first  semester,  50 
men  and  75  women  were  used.  During  the  second  semes- 
ter, the  experiment  was  repeated  with  a  different  dummy 
made  up  in  exactly  the  same  way  as  the  one  already 
described,  and  results  obtained  from  50  men  and  25 
women. 

The  records  obtained  were  carefully  gone  over  and 
each  reply  on  the  papers  graded,  the  following  points 


ASSOCIATION 


167 


being  considered :  (i)  the  article,  (2)  pictures,  (3)  catch 
phrases,  headlines,  and  descriptive  matter,  (4)  name  and 
location  of  firm,  (5)  size  of  advertisement  or  number  of 
repetitions. 

Throughout  the  entire  experiment  we  endeavored  to 
duplicate  as  far  as  possible  actual  advertising  conditions. 
Instead  of  pasting  the  advertisements  on  flat  surfaces, 
we  put  them  in  an  actual  magazine  where  the  curving 
of  the  leaves  might  hide  parts  of  some  of  the  advertise- 
ments. Instead  of  allowing  a  certain  fixed  time  for  the 
perusal  of  each  page,  we  alloted  a  certain  tune  for  going 
through  the  whole  advertising  section,  allowing  the 
subject  to  distribute  the  time  as  he  wished.  To  judge 
from  Strong's  results,  this  method  of  procedure  would 
give  a  lower  relative  value  to  the  effect  of  repetition  than 
allowing  a  certain  fixed  time  per  page.  Strong's  results 
show  that  if  the  sheets  are  shown  at  a  rate  of  one  per 
second,  the  ratio  of  the  average  for  one  appearance  of  an 
advertisement  is  i.oo,  for  two  repetitions  is  1.3 1,  and  for 
four  repetitions,  1.71.  When  the  subjects  looked  at 
the  sheets  at  their  leisure,  the  following  ratios  were 
obtained.  One  appearance,  i.oo;  two  repetitions,  1.19; 
four  repetitions,  1.53.1  When  we  are  looking  at  the 
sheets  at  our  leisure,  the  natural  tendency  is  to  pay  less 
attention  to  those  things  which  are  familiar  and  con- 
centrate more  upon  the  unfamiliar.  Furthermore,  in 
our  effort  to  imitate  advertising  conditions,  we  used 
recall  memory  rather  than  recognition  memory. 

The  results  received  from  the  subjects  were  carefully 
graded  and  worked  out  in  various  ways.  In  the  first 
place,  the  average  memory  value  of  each  advertisement 
was  obtained  by  dividing  the  total  number  of  credits  it 
received  by  the  highest  total  number  of  credits  that  it 
could  possibly  have  received  —  the  number  of  subjects 
multiplied  by  5,  since  each  advertisement  was  graded 
1  Strong,  E.  K.,  "Psy.  Rev.,"  Vol.  XXI,  page  146. 


I 


i68     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

on  5  points.  This  gave  the  "group"  memory  for  each 
advertisement.  The  results  for  the  different  page  divi- 
sions were  then  obtained  by  adding  the  averages  for 
each  kind  and  dividing  by  12,  the  nimiber  of  advertise- 
ments of  that  size. 

Because  of  the  high  average  deviations  obtained  by 
this  method,  it  was  decided  to  work  the  results  through 
by  the  Order  of  Merit  method.  Since  both  methods 
gave  almost  identical  results,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
discuss  but  one. 

In  the  table  below  are  given  the  average  results 
obtained  for  the  different  page  divisions  by  the  men, 
the  women,  and  both  the  men  and  the  women.  The 
results  are  given  in  percentages.  The  men,  for  example, 
remembered  practically  i  of  what  was  to  be  remembered 
about  the  full-page  advertisements ;  the  women  remem- 
bered slightly  less.  Av.  =  average ;  A.D.  =  average 
deviation. 

Table  showing  "  Group  "  Memory 


Men 

Women 

Both 

Av. 

A.D. 

Av. 

A.D. 

Av. 

A.D. 

Full  page  .     . 
Half  page .     . 
Quarter  page 
Eighth  page  . 

21.6 
18.2 
17.7 
23.0 

0.89 

0.59 
0.58 

0-53 

19.8 

18.3 
17.4 

239 

0.98 
0.80 
0.69 
0.63 

20.7 
18.4 
17.6 

235 

0.94 
0.69 
0.64 
0.58 

Average     . 

20.1 

0.65 

19.9 

0.78 

20.0 

0.71 

These  results  show  that  the  eight  times  repeated 
eighth  page  has  somewhat  the  highest  memory  value 
for  both  sexes.  The  full  page  shown  once  is  next,  the 
half  page  repeated  twice  is  third,  and  the  quarter  page 
repeated  four  times  is  the  worst  arrangement  for  both 
sexes  as  far  as  memory  value  is  concerned. 


ASSOCLVTION 


169 


The  men  have  somewhat  better  memories  for  the 
full  page  advertisements  than  have  the  women;  the 
women,  on  the  other  hand,  show  better  memories  for 
the  eight  times  repeated  eighth  page  advertisements. 
This  probably  means  that  the  men  are  more  influenced 
by  magnitude,  whereas  the  women  are  more  affected 
by  repetition. 

Another  peculiar  phenomenon  indicated  by  the  table 
is  that,  up  to  a  certain  limit,  size  is  a  greater  factor  in 
memory  than  frequency  of  repetition.  Past  this  limit, 
however,  frequency  becomes  the  more  important  con- 
sideration. This  will  be  more  plainly  seen  if  the  table 
given  above  is  transformed  into  a  table  of  ratios.  The 
results  for  the  full  page  are  taken  as  the  standard  and 
the  others  reduced  to  ratios  of  it : 


MSM 

Women 

Both 

Full  page       

Half  page 

Quarter  page 

Eighth  page       

100 

84 

82 

107 

100 

94 

88 

121 

100 

89 

8S 

114 

This  table  indicates  that  at  least  more  than  4  repeti- 
tions are  necessary  to  compensate  for  size.  Somewhere 
between  4  and  8,  the  number  of  repetitions  becomes 
the  more  important  factor,  imtil,  when  8  repetitions 
have  been  made,  the  memory  value  rises  considerably 
above  that  brought  about  by  size  alone.  It  would 
seem  that  below  5  repetitions,  at  least,  size  is  a  more 
important  factor  than  frequency.  It  must  be  kept  in 
mind,  however,  that  these  repetitions  all  occurred  within 
a  very  few  minutes.  Had  they  been  separated  by 
longer  intervals,  quite  different  results  might  have  been 
obtained. 

The  second  method  of  working  out  the  results  was 


I70     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

almost  the  exact  opposite  of  that  already  discussed. 
It  consisted  of  finding  out  the  total  number  of  persons 
who  remembered  anything  at  all  about  the  different 
advertisements  and  from  this  data  obtaining  the  total 
number  of  times  each  size  was  mentioned.  This  way 
of  recording  the  results  makes  the  barest  mention  of  an 
advertisement  equal  to  a  very  complete  description  of 
it.  The  table  showing  the  total  number  of  times  each 
size  of  advertisement  was  mentioned  follows : 


Men 

WoUfKN 

Both 

Full  page 

Half  page 

Quarter  page 

Eighth  page       

242 
236 

238 
302 

242 

248 

239 
325 

484 
484 
477 
627 

This  way  of  working  out  the  results  indicates  that 
for  the  men  the  eighth  page  is  best,  the  full  page  next, 
the  quarter  page  is  third,  and  the  half  last.  For  the 
women,  the  eighth  is  best,  the  half,  next,  the  full  page 
is  third,  and  the  quarter  is  the  poorest  of  all.  The 
combined  results  show  the  eighth  page  to  be  the  best, 
the  full  and  half  tied  for  second  place,  and  the  quarter 
page  last.  These  results  are  strikingly  like  those  ob- 
tained in  part  I  of  the  experiment. 

Several  other  points  should  be  mentioned.  With 
both  the  men  and  the  women,  the  results  for  the  full, 
half,  and  quarter  pages  are  very  much  alike,  the  maxi- 
mum difference  being  9.  These  differences  are  so  slight 
that  they  mean  practically  nothing.  The  eight  times 
repeated  eighth  page,  however,  rises  head  and  shoulders 
above  any  of  the  other  sizes  as  far  as  memory  value  is 
concerned. 

Again  we  find  that  the  men  are  relatively  more  af- 
fected by  sheer  size,  whereas  the  women  are  more  in- 


ASSOCL\TION 


171 


fluenced  both  absolutely  and  relatively  by  frequency 
of  repetition. 

If  we  consider  the  results  in  still  another  way,  namely, 
by  finding  the  average  memory  value  per  person  for 
the  different  sizes  of  advertisements,  we  shall  obtain 
some  additional  data.  Since  relatively  few  persons 
recalled  the  greater  number  of  the  advertisements,  the 
*' group"  memory  is  not  an  indication  of  the  strength 
of  the  impression  made  by  each  advertisement  upon  each 
individual.  If  we  divide  the  total  credits  received  by 
each  advertisement  by  the  number  of  persons  who  re- 
membered that  advertisement,  we  obtain  the  "individ- 
ual'* memory  for  each  advertisement.  Averaging  these 
results  as  was  done  before,  we  obtain  the  following 
table : 


Men 

WOIKN 

Both 

Av. 

A.D. 

Av. 

A.D. 

Av. 

A.D. 

Full  page  .     . 
Half  page 
Quarter  page 
Eighth  page  . 

50.1 
47.6 
42.9 

43-9 

4.17 
S-40 
425 
2.14 

48.8 
44-2 
45-2 
46.8 

5-35 
3-70 
3.60 
3.00 

49-5 

45-9 
44.1 

45-4 

4.76 
455 
3-93 

2.57 

Average    .    . 

46.1 

3-99 

46.2 

3-91 

46.2 

3-95 

This  table  indicates  that  the  full  page  advertisement 
shown  once  has  the  highest  "individual  "  memory  value. 
The  two  sexes  are  unanimous  to  that  extent ;  from  there 
on,  they  differ  somewhat.  In  general,  however,  the 
half  page  is  next,  the  eighth  page  is  third,  and  the 
quarter  page  is  last.  This  table  indicates,  as  do  the 
previous  ones,  that  the  men  are  more  influenced  by  size 
than  are  the  women,  while  the  women  are  more  in- 
fluenced by  repetition  than  are  the  men. 

Since  the  first  and  third  ways  of  considering  the  results 


172     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

bring  out  somewhat  different  conclusions,  it  will  be  in- 
teresting to  see  if  we  can  combine  them  to  give  an 
average  value  to  the  two  tendencies  which  are  obviously 
at  work.  Since  it  is  impossible  to  determine  the  actual 
relative  strength  of  the  two  tendencies,  we  shall,  for 
purposes  of  comparison,  consider  them  equal.  The 
arithmetic  mean  is,  then,  as  good  a  method  of  combina- 
tion as  any.  In  order  to  obtain  this,  we  reduce  the 
table  giving  the  ** group"  memory  and  the  one  giving 
the  "individual"  memory  to  ratios  and  average  them. 
This  gives  the  following  results : 


Men 

Women 

Both 

Full  page 

Half  page      ...... 

Quarter  page 

Eighth  page 

104 

94 
88 

100 

94 
86 

85 
100 

99 

90 

86 

100 

This  table  means  that  in  the  long  run  it  is  a  matter 
of  practical  indifference  whether  the  eight  times  repeated 
eighth  page  or  the  full  page  shown  once  is  used.  Either 
is  better  than  the  half  page  repeated  twice  or  the  quarter 
page  repeated  four  times.  In  both  types  of  memory, 
the  quarter  page  is  the  worst  size  of  all.  The  moral  is, 
therefore,  to  use  it  sparingly. 

If  the  advertiser  wishes  to  influence  the  men,  the  full 
page  is  probably  the  best  means  to  employ.  If  he 
wishes  to  persuade  the  women,  the  eight  times  repeated 
eighth  page  is  probably  best.  If  he  wishes  to  affect 
many  persons  to  a  slight  degree,  the  eighth  page  is  best, 
but  should  he  desire  to  influence  a  fewer  number  of 
persons  somewhat  more  strongly,  the  full  page  is  his 
best  means  of  doing  so. 

We  turn  now  to  an  entirely  different  discussion  of 
the  results  and  shall  consider  the  question  of  what 


ASSOCLVTION 


173 


part  of  the  advertisement  is  the  best  remembered.  It 
will  be  recalled  that,  psychologically,  the  aim  of  adver- 
tising is  to  form  a  strong  associative  bond  between  a 
need  and  the  trade  name.  The  results  were,  therefore, 
tabulated  to  show  how  many  times  the  following  things 
were  mentioned  in  each  advertisement:  picture,  name 
of  company,  catch  phrase,  headline,  etc.,  name  and 
description  of  article.  The  results  were,  as  usual, 
averaged  for  the  different  sizes  of  advertisements  used. 
Since  the  different  sizes  had  different  memory  values, 
the  actual  figures  are  reduced  to  percentages  in  the 
tables,  for  it  is  primarily  the  relative  values  of  these 
things  in  which  we  are  interested.    The  tables  follow : 


Full  page 
Half  page 
Quarter  page 
Eighth  page 


Average 


Full  page 
Half  page 
Quarter  page 
Eighth  page 


Average 


Men 


Picture 

Company 

Phrase 

33-6 
37.0 
40.4 
32.8 

7.2 

lO.O 

6.2 

9-4 

17.2 

13.8 

15.9 
23.8 

35-6 

8.3 

18.0 

WOICEN 


Men  and  Women 


Article 


42.0 

39-2 

37.5 

34.0 

38.1 


37.4 

6.6 

14.3 

43-6 

4.3 

13-6 

44.0 

5.2 

12.4 

34.7 

9.7 

25.6 

39-6 

6.5 

16.4 

41.7 

38.8 
38.4 

30.2 


37.3 


Full  page 

Half  page 

Quarter  page 

Eighth  page 

35-5 
40.3 
42.3 
33.8 

6.9 

7-1 
5.7 
9.5 

15.7 

13-7 
14.1 

24.7 

41.8 

38.9 
38.0 

32.1 

Average 

37-9 

7-3 

17.1 

37-7 

I    •! 


174     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

These  tables  show  that  the  men  are  more  likely  to 
remember  the  advertised  article  than  anything  else  in 
the  advertisement ;  the  women,  on  the  other  hand,  are 
slightly  more  Ukely  to  recall  the  pictures.  Considering 
the  results  of  both  men  and  women,  the  pictures  are 
very  slightly  more  likely  to  be  recalled  than  the  name  of 
the  article. 

Since,  psychologically  considered,  the  aim  of  advertis- 
ing is  to  form  a  connection  between  a  need  and  the  name 
of  an  article,  that  size  which  is  most  Hkely  to  lead  to  the 
recall  of  the  article  will  be  the  best  size  to  employ. 
This  is  clearly  found  for  both  sexes  in  the  full  page 
advertisements.  There  is  a  steady  decrease  in  the 
memory  value  of  the  article  with  decrease  in  the  size 
of  the  space  used.  The  effect  of  repetition,  as  was  found 
with  the  eight  times  repeated  eighth  page,  was  to  em- 
phasize such  things  as  the  name  of  the  company  and 
more  particularly  to  bring  to  mind  with  greater  vivid- 
ness the  catch  phrases  and  headlines  which  ordinarily 
do  not  mention  the  name  of  the  advertised  article  at  all. 

Summary 

1.  Any  method  of  scoring  the  results  shows  that 
the  eight  times  repeated  eighth  page  has  the  highest 
"group*'  memory  value,  together  with  a  relatively 
low  mean  variation.  With  "individual"  memory,  it 
ranks  third.  The  use  of  frequent,  small  advertisements 
tends  to  emphasize  the  relatively  more  unimportant 
parts  of  the  advertisement,  such  as  catch  phrases  and 
firm  name. 

2.  The  quarter  page  has,  in  general,  the  lowest 
memory  value,  together  with  the  lowest  mean  variation. 
Pictures  are  more  likely  to  be  remembered  with  this 
size  of  advertisement  than  is  the  name  of  the  article. 
In  fact,  this  size  has  the  highest  memory  value  for 
pictures. 


ASSOCIATION 


175 


/ 


3.  The  half  page  advertisement  is  in  third  place  with 
the  "group"  memory,  is  in  second  position  with  "in- 
dividual" memory,  and  is  in  second  place  also  as  regards 
both  the  memory  for  pictures  and  article. 

4.  The  full  page  advertisement  is  second  in  "group" 
memory  and  first  in  "individual"  memory.  Its  use 
is  also^  more  Ukely  to  bring  about  the  recall  of  the 
advertised  article  than  any  other  size.  It  is,  there- 
fore, a  good  size.  We  feel  justified  in  saying  that, 
everything  considered,  as  far  as  memory  values  are 
concerned,  it  is  the  best  of  all  of  the  sizes  used  in  this 
experiment. 

The  size  of  the  advertisement  to  be  used  depends 
upon  the  motive  of  the  advertiser.  Since  the  main 
choice  evidently  hes  between  the  eight  times  repeated 
eighth  page  and  the  full  page  shown  once,  we  shall 
consider  those  possibilities  only.  It  is  plainly  apparent 
that  a  fairly  large  part  of  the  advertising  which  is  done 
must  rely  for  its  adequacy  upon  memory.  There  is  a 
relatively  small  amount  of  advertising  appearing  in  the 
magazines  which  demands  an  instant  response,  or  where 
an  instant  response  is  possible.  The  usual  endeavor 
is  to  make  so  strong  and  favorable  an  impression  upon 
the  reader  that  when  he  gets  to  a  store  to  purchase  a 
certain  kind  of  commodity,  he  will  ask  for  that  particular 
kind  which  he  saw  advertised  and  ask  for  it  by  name. 
It  seems  fairly  obvious  that  the  full  page  advertisement 
is  the  best  to  bring  about  this  condition.  It  has  a  high 
"group"  and  "individual"  memory,  and  leads  to  a 
greater  likeUhood  of  recalling  the  product  than  any 
other  kind. 

A  test  which  brings  out  somewhat  the  same  point 
concerning  the  relative  memorabiHty  of  different  features 
of  advertisements  was  conducted  by  Cheney  on  117  of 
his  employees.  The  following  questions  were  asked 
and  the  replies  tabulated  in  the  usual  way. 


ill 


'     I 


176     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

"What  are  the  products  manufactured  by  the  firms 
using  the  followmg  names?  Hamilton,  Oneida  Com- 
munity, Welch,  Peters,  Lydia  Pinkham,  Gillette,  Ford, 
Williams,  Mellen,  Waterman,  Pears,  Iver  Johnson, 
Tiffany,  Heinz,  Hart,  Schaffner  &  Marx,  Beecham, 
Chalmers,  Colgate,  Campbell,  Pabst,  Steinway,  Kellogg, 
Fairbanks,  Skinner,  National  Biscuit  Co.,  Kleinert."  ^ 


Name 


Ford 

Williams  .  .  . 
Waterman  .  .  . 
Hamilton  .  .  . 
Oneida  Commimity 
Beecham  .  .  . 
Campbell  .  .  . 
Kellogg  .... 
Gillette  .... 
Kleinert  .  .  . 
Peter  .... 
Skinner  .  .  . 
Pabst  .... 
Fairbanks  (scales) 
Fairbanks  (soap)  . 
Colgate  .... 
Chalmers  .  .  . 
Iver  Johnson  .  . 
H.  S.  &  Marx  .  . 
Heinz  .... 
Welch  .... 
Steinway  .  .  . 
Tiffany  .... 
Pears  .... 
Na.  Bis.  Co.  .  . 
Mellen  .... 
Lydia  Pinkham     . 

Average     .     . 


Men 


98.9 
96.7 
97.8 
70.0 
SCO 

85.5 
90.0 
76.7 
97.8 
27.8 
80.0 
78.9 
90.0 

65-5 
30.0 

93-3 

84.4 

87.8 
85.6 

945 
82.2 
97.8 
95-6 

94-5 
91. 1 
81.1 
91. 1 


Women 


82.0 


lOO.O 
lOO.O 
lOO.O 

77.8 

59-2 
66.7 

81.5 
77.8 
77.8 
55.6 
92.6 
66.7 
85.2 
62.9 

33-3 
96.4 

77.8 
85.2 
66.7 

96.3 
81.5 
92.6 
88.9 
1 00.0 
88.9 

96.3 
74.1 


80.8 


TOTAl 


99.0 

97-4 

98.3 
71.8 

52.6 

81.2 

88.0 

76.9 

93-2 
32.4 
82.9 
76.1 
88.8 
64.9 
30.8 
94.9 
82.9 
87.2 
81.2 

94.9 
82.5 

96.S 
94.0 

95-7 
90.6 
84.6 
78.6 


81.S 


*  Printer's  Ink,  August  20,  1914,  pages  61-62. 

*  In  these  tables,  the  author  is  not  responsible  for  the  averages. 


ASSOCIATION  177 

2.  What  are  the  following  products? 


Bon  Ami      .    . 
Beaver  Bd. 
Aeolian    .    .    . 
Big  Ben  .    .    . 
Velvet      .    .    . 
B.  V.  D.       .    . 
Nabisco   .    .    . 
Kohinoor  snaps 
Kohinoor  pencils 
Pompeian     .    . 
Prince  Albert    . 
Uneeda  Biscuit 
Zu  Zu       ... 
Keen  Kutter     . 
Alco    .... 

Average     . 


Men 


66.5 


2  A.  Who  makes  them? 


Bon  Ami      .    . 
Beaver  Board  . 
Aeolian    .    .    . 
Velvet      .    .    . 
Big  Ben  .    .    . 
B.  V.  D.       .    . 
Nabisco   .     .    . 
Kohinoor  snaps 
Kohinoor  pencils 
Pompeian 
Prince  Albert     . 
Uneeda  Biscuit 
ZuZu      ... 
Keen  Kutter     . 
Alco    .     .     . . 

Average     . 


Men 


68.9 
II. I 
26.7 

m  Am  ^ 

S.6 

7.8 

77.8 

I.I 

15.5 
14.4 

73-3 
57.8 
20.0 

34.4 


30.1 


Women 


90.0 
47-8 
62.2 

96.3 
48.1 

70.4 

91.5 
47.9 

64.1 

71. 1 
85.6 

70.4 
85.2 

70.1 
86.3* 

74.4 

55.6 

70.1 

38.9 
5.6 

40.7 
7.4 

39.3 
6.0 

50.0 
85.6 
88.9 

51.8 
92.6 

77.8 

50.4 
87.2 
86.3 

91. 1 

46.7 
88.9 

lOO.O 

44.5 
88.9 

93.2 
46.2 
88.9 

71.1 

62.9 

70.9 

66.2 


Women 


51.8 

29.6 
25-9 


55.6 

22.2 

25.9 
7-4 
55-6 
48.1 
18.S 
33.3 


24.9 


*  Printer's  Ink,  August  20,  1914,  pages  61-62. 
N 


Both 


66.6  « 


Both 


56.4 

8.5 

27.3 
23.1 

4.3 

5.9 

72.6 

.9 
17.1 

17.9 

12.8 

69.2 

55-6 
19.6 

34-2 


28.4 


« 


i 
i 


«ij 


178     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 
3.  What  are  the  trade  marks  used  by? 


Men 

Women 

Both 

Swift  &  Co 

32.2 

33-3 

32.4 

Beaver  Board 

16.6 

18.S 

17. 1 

Am.  Telephone  &  Teleg.  Co. 

40.0 

37-0 

39.3 

Fairy  Soap        

44.4 

66.7 

49.6 

Ford 

4.4 

3-7 

4-3 

Skinner's  Satin 

3I-I 

29.6 

30.8 

Nat.  Lead  Co 

28.9 

14.8 

25.6 

Cream  of  Wheat       

54.4 

55-6 

54-7 

Na.  Bis.  Co 

18.9 

18.5 

18.8 

Old  Dutch  Cleanser 

73-3 

77.8 

74.4 

Heinz       *    .     .     . 

70.0 

59.2 

67.S 

Average 

37.7 

37.7 

37.7 

4.  Who  says  ? 


Men 

Women 

Both 

You  dirty  boy       

There's  a  reason  —  Postum     .     . 
There's  a  reason  —  Grape  Nuts  . 
It  floats 

32.2 

44.4 
20.0 
68.9 

8.9 

31. 1 
66.7 

66.7 

41. 1 

43.3 
66.7 

33-3 
44.5 
29.6 

77.8 

18.S 
29.6 

74.1 
70.4 

51.8 
40.7 
70.4 

32.3 
44.4 
22.2 

70.9 

II. I 

30.8 
68.4 
68.4 

43-6 
42.7 

67.S 

Good  Bye 

Old  hook  and  eye 

Ask  the  man  who  owns  one     .     . 

Chases  dirt       

One  of  the  57 

99tS^  per  cent  pure 

Hammer  the  hammer     .... 
It  hasn't  scratched  yet        .     .     . 

Average 

43-7 

49.5 

45-1 

This  table  is  particularly  interesting  in  that  it  indi- 
cated the  effect  of  advertising  on  the  minds  of  mature 
men  and  women  who  are  the  actual  purchasers  of  ad- 
vertised goods;  upon  the  minds  of  individuals  who 
are  wage  earners.    It  shows  that  people  of  the  class 


ASSOCIATION 


179 


experimented  upon  can  tell  with  considerable  accuracy 
the  product  which  is  made  by  a  given  man.  That  is, 
they  have  a  considerable  knowledge  of  the  industrial 
information  of  the  country,  probably  derived  from  ad- 
vertisements. In  fewer  instances  can  they  tell  what 
the  product  is,  thereby  showing  little  personal  acquaint- 
ance with  it.  The  slogan  is  recalled  more  frequently 
than  the  trade  mark,  possibly  because  it  is  something 
which  can  be  repeated.  But  slightly  over  a  quarter  of 
them  can  tell  who  makes  the  commodity.  This  is 
especially  noteworthy  considering  that  the  greatest 
memory  value  was  for  the  name  of  the  commodity  which 
was  manufactured  by  certain  persons.  To  be  sure, 
different  firms  were  ordinarily  suggested,  and  probably 
the  second  hst  was  more  difficult  than  the  first. 

As  a  by-product  of  another  experiment,  which  will 
be  described  more  in  detail  at  a  later  time,  information 
was  obtained  concerning  the  relative  importance  of 
primacy  and  recency  as  connected  with  advertisements. 
The  experiment  consisted  in  giving  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  persons  copies  of  some  standard  magazine,  and 
telling  them  to  look  it  over.  Sometimes  they  were 
told  that  they  would  be  tested  for  their  memory  of  the 
advertisements,  sometimes  they  were  not,  but  at  any 
rate,  they  were  requested  at  a  subsequent  time  to  record 
the  advertisements  which  they  remembered.  The  test, 
as  performed  in  three  different  universities  upon  a  total 
of  about  600  subjects,  may  be  taken  as  showing  with 
considerable  accuracy  the  memory  tendencies  of  college 
students,  especially  since  the  results  of  the  three  separate 
experiments  show  a  very  considerable  amount  of  agree- 
ment. If  the  beginning  of  the  front  advertising  section 
and  the  beginning  of  the  back  section  are  taken  to  repre- 
sent primacy,  the  ends  of  the  two  sections  to  represent 
recency,  and  the  middle  of  the  two  advertising  sections 
to  represent  a  basis  of  comparison,  the  following  results. 


;    il 


i8o     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

averages  of  the  three  experiments,  are  obtained.  The 
results  are  given  in  ratios,  that  position  having  the  high- 
est memory  value  in  each  experiment  having  been  given 
a  value  of  i.oo,  and  the  results  of  the  three  experiments 
averaged. 

Middle  of  the  sections 32 

Beginning  of  each  section 87 

End  of  each  section 43 

This  table  indicates  that  primacy  is  a  stronger  factor 
than  recency.  Another  bit  of  substantiating  evidence 
is  found  in  the  fact  that  in  two  of  the  three  experiments, 
the  front  advertising  section  had  a  higher  memory  value 
than  the  back. 

The  third  set  of  laws  for  determining  the  direction 
of  the  association  are  those  which  were  encountered  in 
the  discussion  of  attention.  They  are  operative  in  this 
connection  for  exactly  the  same  reasons  that  they  were 
in  the  previous  connection,  so  need  no  further  discussion 
at  this  time. 

Another  point  of  some  interest  to  the  advertising  man 
is  to  be  found  in  connection  with  backward  and  forward 
associations.  If  A  and  B  enter  consciousness  in  immedi- 
ate succession,  we  saw  that  when  A  reappeared,  B  would 
be  called  up,  too.  Does  the  reverse  hold  true?  If  B 
should  appear,  would  it  call  up  A?  That  the  forward 
association  is  much  stronger  than  the  backward  one  is 
readily  demonstrated  by  saying  the  alphabet  forward 
and  then  trying  to  say  it  backwards.  While  the  latter 
can  be  done  by  the  great  majority  of  people,  it  takes 
them  much  longer  than  the  former.  An  experiment 
quoted  by  Myers  ^  shows  that  the  forward  association 
is  practically  three  times  as  strong  as  the  backward 
association. 

Since  one  of  the  main  objects  of  advertising,  con- 

*  Myers,  "Textbook  of  Experimental  Psychology,"  page  166. 


ASSOCIATION 


181 


sidered  from  the  psychological  standpoint,  is  the  forma- 
tion of  an  association  between  a  need  and  a  way  of 
satisfying  that  need,  usually  the  name  of  a  commodity, 
it  is  quite  important  that  this  law  be  observed.  Other 
things  being  equal,  the  need  should  be  stated  first,  the 
remedy  for  the  need  should  be  stated  afterwards.  Under 
these  conditions,  the  likelihood  of  the  commodity's 
occurring  to  a  possible  purchaser  is  at  least  doubled 
and  possibly  trebled. 

Another  application  of  the  same  law  is  to  be  found  in 
the  name  of  the  commodity  itself.  Usually  the  exi- 
gencies of  the  case  demand  that  the  particular  name  shall 
come  first  to  be  followed  by  the  general  class  of  com- 
modity to  which  it  belongs.  We  are  quite  accustomed  to 
seeing  Ivory  Soap,  Campbell's  Soups,  Marlin  shotgims, 
etc.,  etc. ;  seldom  Soap  Ivory,  Gun  Marlin,  and  so  on, 
for  such  an  arrangement  would  necessarily  be  awkward. 
It  seems  possible,  however,  that  some  form  of  expression 
which  would  put  the  general  class  first  and  the  partic- 
ular name  second  would  establish  a  firmer  association. 
To  be  sure,  soap  and  guns  are  not  the  needs,  they  are 
the  way  of  satisfying  the  needs.  In  the  case  of  soap, 
the  need  is  cleanliness.  Just  plain  water  is  not  a  satis- 
factory way  of  satisfying  the  need,  as  most  individuals 
have  found,  so  the  idea  of  soap  arises.  Following  the 
idea  of  soap  should  logically  come  the  particular  kind 
of  soap.  But  man  is  very  prone  to  form  verbal  habits. 
He  dislikes  to  think  in  general  terms  where  he  can 
escape  it.  Consequently,  instead  of  using  the  mere 
word  soap,  he  is  very  likely  to  run  the  two  words.  Ivory 
Soap,  together  as  if  they  were  hyphenated,  so  that  the 
need  for  cleanliness  suggests  not  soap  in  general,  but 
Ivory  Soap.  The  advertiser  who  can  produce  this 
hyphenated  impression  in  connection  with  his  wares 
is  very  fortimate,  for  it  is  a  sign  that  his  conmiodity 
is  very  well  known.    If  his  conmiodity  is  not  so  re- 


w 


182     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

nowned,  the  quickest  way  for  him  to  make  it  so  is 
to  use  the  forward  association  rather  than  that  of  the 
reverse  sort. 

In  an  experiment  performed  at  the  University  of 
Michigan,  a  Hst  of  100  words  was  prepared,  one  third  of 
them  being  general,  class  names,  such  as  guns,  gloves, 
breakfast  foods,  coffee,  etc.  The  rest  of  the  list  was 
made  up  of  particular  advertised  commodities,  such  as 
Paris,  Hansons,  etc.  The  list  was  read  to  a  number  of 
subjects,  the  first  association  which  occurred  to  each 
in  response  to  the  stimulus  word  was  recorded,  and  the 
time  taken  between  the  giving  of  the  stimulus  word  and 
the  response.  The  results  show  that  the  forward  as- 
sociation took  1.90  seconds;  the  backward  association, 
2.36  seconds.  Other  experiments  have  shown  that  the 
reaction  time  is  a  very  accurate  measure  of  the  relative 
strength  of  associations. 

This  experiment  also  shows  the  relative  strength  of 
the  different  associations  which  have  been  connected 
with  any  one  class  of  objects.  It  is  in  reaUty  a  measure- 
ment of  the  advertisements  which  have  been  most 
effective  with  any  given  individual. 

A  sample  page  showing  the  list  of  words  and  the 
response  given  to  them  is  inserted. 


Stimulus 

RXSPONSE 

Stdculus 

Response 

Williams 

Shaving 

Breakfast  Food 

Kelloggs 

Beechnut 

Gum 

Soap 

Pears 

Kelloggs 

Flakes 

Flour 

Crosby 

CampbeUs 

Soup 

Watches 

Waltham 

Crisco 

Lard 

Fountain  Pens 

Waterman 

Nabisco 

Wafers 

Chewing  Gum 

Spearmint 

Velvet 

Tobacco 

Guns 

Iver  Johnson 

Kodak 

Eastman 

Soups 

Campbell 

Arrow 

Collars 

Tobacco 

P.  A. 

Horlicks 

Milk 

Milk 

Borden 

Mennens 

Powder 

Collars 

Corliss  Kuhn 

f 


ASSOCIATION 

183 

Sumulus 

Response 

Stutdlus 

Response 

Never  leak 

Tires 

Socks 

Holeproof 

Winchester 

Guns 

Camera 

Eastman 

(Z)    RizLa 

Rubbers 

Neverslip 

Community 

Razors 

Durham 

Delco 

Starters 

Toothbrushes 

Pro-phy-lactic 

Waltham 

Watch 

Speedometers 

Stewart 

Savage 

Gun 

Toilet  Powders 

Colgates 

Welch 

Grape  Juice 

Coffee 

White  House 

Gillette 

Razor 

Cleanser 

Dutch 

Everstick 

Rubbers 

Garters 

Boston 

Edison 

Lights 

Education 

Univ.  of  Chicago 

Carnation 

Milk 

Pianos 

Grinnell 

Colt 

Gun 

Stoves 

Detroit 

Remington 

Gun 

Paints 

Acme 

Pro-phy-lactic 

Brush 

Magazines 

Cosmopolitan 

Ranson 

Gloves 

Books 

Business 

Lowneys 

Chocolates 

Self  starters 

Delco 

Iron- Clad 

Sox 

Schools 

Wharton 

Fisk 

Tires 

Cleaners 

Dutch 

Columbia 

Battery 

Hats 

Knox 

Ivory 

Soap 

Clothes 

Kirschbaum 

Timkin 

Bearing 

Shoes 

Regal 

Three  in  one 

OU 

Ties 

Cheney 

Shin-o-la 

PoUsh 

Shirts 

Arrow 

Warner 

Speed 

Underwear 

Wilson  Bros. 

Ingersoll 

Watch 

Gloves 

Fownes 

Holeproof 

Hosiery 

Tires 

Fisk 

Thermos 

Bottles 

Canoes 

Kennebec 

Daisy 

Grape  Juice 

Red  Wing 

Hinds 

Almond  Cream 

Bon  Ami 

Swift 

Bacon 

The  table,  showing  the  average  times  taken  by  the 
subjects,  together  with  the  average  deviation  of  the 
subjects,  is  given.  It  is  seen  that  the  average  time  for 
all  the  subjects  for  the  forward  association  is  consider- 
ably shorter  than  the  average  time  for  the  backward 
association,  and  that  the  average  variation  for  the 
forward  association  is  considerably  less  than  the  cor- 
responding figure  for  the  backward  association. 


184     ADVERTISING  AND   ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 


FoRWAKD  Association 

M.V. 

'Backwabs  Association 

M.V. 

1.90 

.68 

2.36 

•9S 

The  next  series  of  tables  shows  the  distribution  of 
the  associations,  particulariy  of  the  backward  variety. 
These  show  the  word  which  occurred  first  to  the  sub- 
ject when  the  stimulus  word  was  mentioned.  The 
relatively  slow  reaction  times  exist  because  we  have 
here  a  choice  reaction,  the  subject  being  requested  to 
answer  in  terms  of  some  advertised  commodity. 


ASSOCIATION 


STIMtTI.US 


Stwulds 

Response 

# 

f  KeUogg's 

38 

Q.  Oats 

6 

C.  of  Wheat 

4 

Grape  Nuts 

3 

Breakfast  Food        .    .    . 

Sh.  Wheat 
R.  Oats 
Force 
Nat.  Oats 
Wh.  Bus. 

3 
I 

I 

I 
1 
I 

40 

[Eastman 

Kodak 

14 

CameiE 

Brownie 
Prcmo 

2 
I 
2 

44 

Old  Town 

Peterboro 

3 

Canoes      

1 

Kennebec 

Indian 

Mullen 

I 
I 
I 

1 

9 

[  Spearmint 

24 

Wrigley 

10 

Beechnut 

10 

Chewing  Gum     .... 

Beeman 

Pepsin 

Majoes 

10 

4 
I 

« 

0 

Cleaners 


Cleansers 


Clothes 


Response 


0.  Dutch 

23 

Bon  Ami 

8 

Sapolio 

6 

Vacuum 

4 

Goldman 

2 

Babbitt 

I 

Saniflush 

I 

Hat 

I 

Frantz 

I 

Barkeeper's  Friend 

I 

Eureka 

I 

Electric 

I 

E.Z. 

I 

8 

f  O.  Dutch 
Bon  Ami 


H.S.  &  M. 

A.  S.  Best 

Society  B. 

Kuppenheimer 

Bond  St. 

Steinblach 

Royal 

Kirschbaum 

Price 

Barchfield 

Capper 

Brooks 

Greenroom 

Hamburg 

Campus  Br. 

Hickey 

Cloth  Croft 

Winton 

Princess 

National 

Fields 

Wooltex 

Macks 

King 


S6 
2 
I 

17 
4 
4 
3 
3 
3 
3 
2 

2 


I 
I 

3 


185 


i86     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 


StncTTLins 

Response 

# 

f  White  House 

" 

12 

Chase  &  S. 

7 

Moca  &  J. 

4 

Arbuckle 

4 

Kar-avan 

3 

Bours 

2 

0.  ReUable 

2 

Lion 

2 

4X 

Berry  &  H. 

Postum 

Ceylon 

Coletavera 

Coffee 

0.  Mansion 
South  Bl. 
Bancroft 
Burley 
Vienna 
Manor  H. 
San  Marto 
Englehard 
Barrington 
Nero 
M.  Wash. 
Club  House 
Raleigh 

5 
S3 

Arrow 

Cluett 

2 

Corliss  K. 

I 

Collars       

,  Tuxedo 
Red  Man 
Lion 

I 

I 
I 

• 

Collars 

o 

46 

Shirts 

6 

Pierce 

2 

Arrow 

.  Plane 
Speannint 
Root 

2 
I 
I 

I. 

0 

f  G.  Medal 

20 

Flour 

Pillsbmy 
Washb. 

13 
10 

ASSOCIATION 


187 


STIlfULUS 

Response 

# 

fHenkel 

2 

Occid. 

2 

Crys.  Lily 

I 

Mittellberg 

I 

Lee  &  Chatfield 

I 

• 

Flour — continued     .    .    • 

Kimball 
K.  Arthur 
Rol.  K. 
Ev.  Valley 
Univ. 

I 
I 
I 

I 
I 

3 

k 

r  Waterman 

34 

Conklin 

14 

Parker 

6 

Fountain  Pens    .... 

,  Swan 
McLaughl. 
Eastman 

2 

2 

I 
0 

i- 

■  Paris 

29 

Boston 

22 

Garters 

Vel.  Pad 

Fownes 

Dents 

Hanson 

Keyser 

Adler 

Perrin 

I 
7 

18 
8 

5 
4 

3 
2 

Gloves 

W.  &.  S. 
Reach 
Knox 

Niag.  Maid 
Edith 

I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
14 

^ 

[Welch 

49 

Armours 

3 

Red  Wing 

2 

Grape  Juice 

)  Paupan 
Smith 

2 
I 

0 

^ 

' 

i88     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 


Stmulus 

Response 

# 

Winchester 

19 

Remington 

Savage 

Colt 

13 
S 
4 

Guns     •••••.. 

Iver  Johns. 

Parker 

MarUn 

S.  &W. 

Daisy 

Fox 

Stevens 

3 

3 
2 

2 

2 

I 
I 

t 

4 

'  Stetson 

21 

Knox 

16 

Mallory 

Gage 

Brothers 

8 

3 
I 

Yale 

I 

Hats 

Barnes 

A.  S.  Best 

Factory 

Fisk 

Panama 

Phipps 

Carnation 
Horlick 
Borden 
Condensed 

I 
I 

I 
I 
I 
I 

3 

22 

14 

9 

3 

Milk 

Pet 
Evap. 
Arros 
Eagle  Br. 
Butter 

2 
I 
I 
I 
I 

V. 

5 

fMilk 

31 

Talc 

4 

Auto 

3 

Cream 

2 

Carnation 

,  Flower 
Flour 
Choc. 
Soup 

2 
I 
I 

14 
0 

ASSOCIATION 


L 


f 


/ 


189 


^ 


SnuuLus 

Response 

# 

rS.  &Will. 

28 

Acme 

3 

Wh.  Lead 

3 

•' 

Dutch 

3 

Lowe  Bros. 

3 

PaintA 

Boydell 

Penn. 

Deval 

H.  &M. 

Ready  Mixed 

Sunburst 

Whites 

Buckeye 

> 

'  Steinway 
Grinnell 
Chickering 
Weber 
Kimball 
Grand 
Clark 
Vose 
Crown 

3 

9 

20 
8 
4 
4 

4 

3 
2 

2 

Pianos    •••••.. 

.  Cable 
Knabe 
Packard 
Vaughn 
Ivers  Pond 
Hardman 
A.  A. 
Baldwin 
Williams 

46 

■* 

• 

r  GiUette 

Auto  Strop 
Durham 

3 
3 

Razors  \ 

Ever  Ready 
Wade  &  Butcher 
Keen  Kutter 
Safety 

2 
I 
I 

I 
2 

Gillette 

r  Razor 

1  Auto  Strop 

58 

I 

I90     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 


SmctTLUS 


Rubbers 


Everstick 


Self  Starters   . 


Shirts 


Shoes 


Response 


'  Everstick 
Goodyear 
Neverslip 
Hub 

Red  Seal 
Never  leak 
Hood 
Sullivan 
Everwear 
Red  Cross 


'  Rubbers 
Cement 
Glue 
Glasses 
Patch 
Tires 


fDdco 
Gray  &  Davis 
Westinghouse 
Stewart 

Lynes  &  Hough 
Tyck 
Wagner 


Arrow 

Cluett 

Manhattan 

A.  S.  Best 

Wms. 

Davies 

Kenzie 

Mandd 

Dorchester 

Griffin 

Gourley 

Longfellow 


Franks 

Walkover 

Bannister 


19 

5 
5 
a 
2 
2 
2 
I 
I 
I 

19 

24 

4 

4 

I 

X 

X 

24 

24 

8 

2 


33 

7 

S 
2 


4 

18 

II 

3 


ASSOCL\TION 


STiinn.ns 


Shoes — continued 


Soap 


Ivory 


Socks 


& 


Hole-Proof 


Iron-Clad 


Response 


Florsheim 

Nettleton 

Sorosis 

Regal 

Hanson 

Bostonian 

Ralston 

Wearwell 

Fyfe 

Wagner 

M.  Field 

M.  &M. 

G.  &M. 

Bond  St. 

C.  &  Young 

Burt 

Educator 


'Ivory 
Pears 
Fairy 
Williams 
Woodbury 
Packers 


{Soap 
BaUs 

r  Hole-Proof 
Everwear 
Phcenix 
Iron-Clad 
Onjrx 
Dry 

J  Socks 


Socks 
Gloves 
B.  Ship 
Rubbers 


3 

3 

3 
2 

2 

2 

I 
I 
I 

I 
I 

X 

I 
I 
I 

X 
X 

X 

43 
6 

3 

I 

I 

X 

4 

57 

I 

40 
6 

3 
2 

X 
X 

6 

58 


33 
3 

X 

I 
21 


191 


192     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 


Stdiitlus 

Response 

# 

Campbell 

50 

Van  Camp 

Macaroni 

Soup 

Amberg 
La  France 
Clam  Chowder 

0 
33 

'  Warner 

Stewart 

10 

Speedometer 

Jones 
Bales 

2 
I 

13 

^ 

r  Garland 

12 

Kalamazoo 

9 

Detroit 

6 

Jewel 

3 

Majestic 

3 

Old  Range 

2 

Acorn 

2 

Bucks 

I 

Independent 

I 

Royal  Oak 

I 

Mich. 

I 

Stoves 

•  Royal 
Buckeye 
Hart 
Granger 
T^urel 
Ranger 
Electric 
Richmond 

I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 

Ideal 

I 

Gas  Co. 

I 

Excelsior 
I 

I 

7 

7 

f  Cheney 
A.  S.  Best 

4 

Keyser 

4 

Bond  St. 

2 

Ties       

]  Windsor 
W.  &M. 
Pickards 
Duplex 

2 
2 
2 
I 

ASSOCIATION 


193 


Stimulus 

Ffsponse 

[  Kenzie 

Shein 

4-m-h 

Tinker 

Wash.  Shirt  Co. 

Tics — continued      .    .    . 

Bench 

Capper 

Cy.  Watson 

Arrow 

Woolfolk 

Wilson 

t 

24 

fFisk 

16 

Firestone 

10 

Goodyear 

9 

Goodrich 

8 

U.S. 

S 

Tires 

Republic 
Diamond 

2 
2 

Kelly-Springfield 
G.&J. 
Dunlap 
Hartford 

I 
I 

I 
I 

1 

3 

f  Velvet 

20 

B.  D. 

19 

P.  A. 

10 

L.  Strike 

2 

Starr 

Campbell 

Tobacco 

Tuxedo 
Omars 
Piper 
Cube  Cut 

« 

Camel 
Edgeworth 

1 

'  Mennen 
Colgates 
Williams 

0 

25 

18 
9 

Toilet  Powder     .... 

Talcum 
Squibbs 
Sanitol 
Agurac 

2 

I 
I 

I 

i 

2 

194     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 


SinrnLus 

Response 

Toothbrushes      .... 

Prophylactic 
Rubber  Set 
Sanitol 

46 
6 
I 
6 

47 
27 

8 

29 
16 

9 

3 
I 

I 

0 

Prophylactic 

Underwear 

Toothbrush 
Tooth  paste 
Shaving  brush 

B.  V.  D. 

Porosknit 

Munsing 

WUson  Br. 

Underwood 

Clothes  Craft 

Stone  fields 

Cupper 

WorldStar 

Superior 

Vassar 

Cooper 

Rocking  chair 

Linen  mesh 

Phoenix 

Watches 

1 

Ingersol 

Waltham 

Elgin 

Howard 

Druid 

Waterbury 

V 

ASSOCIATION 


19s 


One  of  the  most  striking  results  of  the  experiment  is 
the  fact  that  those  commodities  which  are  mentioned 
most  frequently  are,  with  few  exceptions,  the  ones 
which  are  most  widely  advertised.  A  second  point 
which  is  very  striking  is  the  number  of  times  an  adver- 
tised commodity  was  not  thought  of.  A  list  will  indi- 
cate the  differences. 


CoificoDmr 


Gum  .  .  . 
Fountain  pens 
Collars  .  . 
Soups  .  . 
Tobacco  .  . 
Watches    .    . 

Breakfast  food 
Cleansers  .    . 
Pianos       .    . 
Shoes    .    .    . 

Cameras  .  . 
Grape  juice  . 
Razor  .  . 
Toilet  powder 


Clothes 
Flour  , 
Hats  . 
Tires     . 


Guns 


NuuBEE  OF  Times 
NOT  Mentioned 


Commodity 


o 
o 
o 
o 
o 
o 

I 
I 
I 

I 

2 
3 
2 
2 

3 

3 
3 
3 


Number  of 
Times  not 
Mentioned 


Shirts  .     . 
Soap    .     . 

Coffee      . 
Milk    .    . 

Socks 
Toothbrushes 

Garters    . 
Stoves 

Cleaners  . 
Underwear 

Canoes     . 
Paints 


Speedometers 
Gloves 
Rubbers 
Self  starters 
Ties     .    . 


4 
4 

5 
5 

6 
6 

7 
7 

8 
8 

9 
9 

13 

14 

19 
21 

24 


The  list  shows  the  relative  knowledge  of  a  group  of 
59  university  students  concerning  advertised  commod- 
ities. The  surprising  thing  is  that  such  commonly 
worn  articles  as  gloves,  rubbers,  and  ties,  should  be  so 
little  known. 


Il   J 


i 


CHAPTER  XI 


Fusions 


The  experiences  which  are  obtained  from  objects  in 
the  outside  world  come  grouped  together,  giving  the 
awareness  of  things  rather  than  of  the  qualities  of  things. 
The  consciousness  of  the  qualities,  as  was  pointed  out, 
is  called  sensation.  To  include  the  awareness  of  things, 
the  term  perception  has  been  adopted.  The  awareness 
of  a  thing  includes  the  simultaneous  experiencing  of 
numerous  qualities.  In  addition  to  this,  it  includes 
also  the  arousal  of  certain  memories.  These  two  con- 
siderations will  be  taken  up  and  studied  in  some  detail, 
for  they  are  of  considerable  importance  to  the  adver- 
tising man. 

The  first  thesis  is  that  perception,  or  a  knowledge  of 
real  things,  is  the  result  of  a  fusion  of  sensations.  Any 
simple  object,  an  apple,  for  example,  may  be  experienced 
in  a  number  of  ways.  It  is  possible  to  see  it,  to  taste  it, 
to  smell  it,  feel  it,  and  so  on.  If  these  experiences  were 
absolutely  separate  and  discrete,  our  knowledge  of  the 
apple  would  be  very  fragmentary.  If  there  was  no 
way  of  grouping  the  different  experiences  which  come 
from  the  same  object,  if  one  could  not  stand  for  the 
other  by  being  called  up  by  association,  it  would  be 
impossible  to  tell  from  the  appearance  of  the  apple 
that  it  was  good  to  eat,  that  it  had  an  agreeable  taste. 
Such  isolated  bits  of  information  would  never  give  a 
knowledge  of  real  objects.  There  wovdd  be  no  way  of 
fusing  the  qualities  together  into  a  unified  whole. 

196 


FUSIONS 


( 


' 


197 


However,  the  brain  of  man  is  built  in  such  a  way  that 
each  sensory  region  is  connected  with  every  other 
sensory  region.  Consequently,  any  two  which  are 
active  at  the  same  time  or  in  immediate  succession  tend 
to  become  assoaated,  so  that  when  one  experience  is 
present,  the  other  tends  to  follow  it.  The  different 
possible  ways  of  experiencing  the  same  object  therefore 
tend  to  become  associated  or  fused  together,  so  that  one 
type  of  expenence  wiU  tend  to  arouse  the  other  possible 
ways  of  experiencing  the  same  thing. 

It  has  been  seen  above  that  there  are  three  groups  of 
sensations,  those  received  from  inside  the  body,  those 
coming  from  objects  in  contact  with  the  body,  and  those 
commg  from  distant  objects.     Those  which  are  received 
trom  objects  at  a  distance  are  of  particular  and  practical 
significance  to  the  individual  only  as  they  may  be  brought 
mto  relation  with  the  body.    Their  chief  significance 
to  the  person  m  a  practical  way  is  in  terms  of  the  sensa- 
tions which  would  result  from  contact  with  the  object 
from  movements  relative  to  the  object,  or  from  taking 
the  object,  wholly  or  partiaUy,  into  the  body.     From 
this  standpomt,  it  may  be  said  that  perception  consists 
largely  m  the  translation  of  experiences  received  by  the 
distance  senses  into  terms  of  the  more  intimate  senses. 
The  pecuhar  effects  of  fight  and  shade,  experienced  in 
visua    terms,  are  translated  into  sensations  of  contact 
and  the  uke. 

Advertising  is  very  largely  a  visual  affair.  Either 
an  actual  picture  or  a  description  of  the  article,  com- 
plete in  Itself  or  emphasizing  one  phase,  is  usuaUy  given 
bight  is  a  distance  sense,  and  in  order  to  arouse  much 
response  or  interest  in  the  reader  of  the  advertisement 
It  IS  desirable  that  such  distance  sensations  should  be 
translated  into  terms  of  the  contact  and  organic  sensa- 
tions. In  the  advertisement  of  a  breakfast  food  for 
example,  a  picture  of  the  food  is  given,  usually  a  dish  of 


I 


I 


1 


« 


198    ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

the  cereal  covered  with  rich  cream  and  often-times  with 
fniit.  Obviously,  the  mere  appearance  of  the  food  will 
never  sell  the  commodity.  If,  however,  the  picture 
arouses  the  taste  sensations  which  may  be  awakened 
by  eating  the  food,  the  olfactory  sensations^  accom- 
panying it,  the  pleasant  organic  sensations  which  arise 
make  the  appeal  very  much  stronger,  and  much  more 
likely  to  result  in  a  sale  of  the  commodity.  Often-times, 
these  necessary  associations  can  be  aroused  by  the  in- 
sertion of  a  word  in  the  copy  suggesting  the  taste,  the 
odor,  or  the  healthful  qualities  of  the  food.  Neatness 
and  cleanliness  of  appearance  are  not  to  be  despised. 
The  reasons  for  this  will,  however,  be  taken  up  at  a 

later  time. 

The  second  point,  that  perceptions  always  mvolve 
memory  processes,  has  already  been  touched  upon,  but 
further  details  should  be  observed.  An  example  which 
is  frequently  given  to  show  the  effects  of  memory  is  our 
perception  of  a  table  top.  A  table  top  is  instantly  re- 
garded as  being  rectangular  in  shape;  but  this  is  a 
sheer  interpretation,  for  the  sensations  themselves 
which  are  received  from  the  table  top  are  anything  but 
rectangular.  It  is  ordinarily  seen  in  perspective,  con- 
sequently there  appear  to  be  two  acute  angles  and  two 
obtuse  angles.  Likewise,  the  edges  must  appear  to  be 
curved,  for  the  images  cast  upon  the  retina  fall  upon  a 
curved  surface  and  according  to  the  laws  of  descriptive 
geometry  can  never  be  absolutely  straight.  Yet  these 
deviations  are  disregarded  completely  by  the  observer 
and  he  immediately  sees  the  top  of  the  table  as  rec- 
tangular. The  reason  may  be  found  in  the  following 
considerations.  From  one  position  certain  angles  ap- 
pear to  be  acute,  from  another  the  same  ones  seem  to 
be  obtuse.  The  observer,  to  bring  order  out  of  this 
chaos,  forms  a  sort  of  average  between  them  and  con- 
cludes that  they  are  really  right  angles.     This  conclusion 


FUSIONS 


199 


■\ 


is  strengthened  by  the  fact  that  the  angles  will  fit  into 
other  angles  which  are  seen  sometimes  as  acute  and  some- 
times as  obtuse,  but  which  actual  measurement  will 
show  to  be  right  angles. 

Generalizing  the  conclusions  arrived  at  by  a  long 
series  of  arguments  like  the  one  given  above,  it  may  be 
stated  that  every  perception  is  the  interpretation  of  the 
incoming  stimuli  in  terms  of  our  past  experience.  We 
have  many  different  experiences  with  the  similar  objects 
and  the  objects  belonging  to  the  same  general  class 
which  surround  us.  In  process  of  time,  we  form  a  typi- 
cal notion  of  such  an  object  or  of  such  a  class  of  objects, 
so  that  any  new  experience  of  the  same  nature  is  im- 
mediately interpreted  in  terms  of  a  typical  idea.  This 
may  be  called  a  typical  act  of  perception.  Certain  of 
the  applications  of  this  general  law  of  perception  are 
obvious,  certain  of  the  others  are  somewhat  more  subtle. 

I.  In  the  first  place,  it  may  be  stated  that  no  adver- 
tisement, unless  it  be  the  very  first  one  which  is  ever 
seen,  is  perceived  in  terms  of  itself  alone,  for  it  is  always 
modified  and  interpreted  in  terms  of  itself  plus  the  more 
or  less  typical  notion  of  the  advertisements  of  the  same 
commodity  which  has  been  made  by  the  effects  of  the 
previous  insertions .  As  a  result  of  the  effect  of  the  previous 
insertions  of  an  advertisement  of  any  given  commodity, 
there  develops  in  the  minds  of  the  readers  a  typical 
notion  of  the  product.  Each  new  advertisement  which 
appears  is  received  and  modified  by  the  t3^ical  notion, 
and  in  turn  adds  to  and  modifies  the  typical  notion  of 
the  product  which  exists  in  the  reader's  mind. 

It  is  largely  for  this  reason  that  repeated  advertise- 
ments have  the  effect  that  they  do.  This  is  especially 
true  if  the  advertisements  are  varied  from  time  to  time, 
each  new  one  calling  attention  to  a  different  character- 
istic of  the  commodity,  or  to  a  new  way  of  using  the 
commodity,  or  to  the  satisfaction  of  another  need  by 


r 


I 


200     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

the  use  of  the  commodity.  For  in  this  way  a  much 
more  thorough  and  inclusive  typical  idea  of  the  com- 
modity is  formed. 

2.  A  second  fact  is  that  each  advertisement  is  in- 
fluenced by  the  other  advertisements,  kinds  of  reading 
matter,  etc.,  which  surround  it,  and  which  come  to 
attention  just  preceding  the  reading  of  the  advertise- 
ment. Not  only  does  the  total  impression  received  from 
the  page  and  the  one  opposite  to  it  fuse  into  a  total  im- 
pression, but  in  the  same  way,  the  entire  advertising 
section  of  the  magazine  gives  rise  to  a  typical  idea  of 
the  advertisements  which  are  included  within  it. 

As  an  instance  of  this  general  rule,  Scott  found  ^  that 
advertisements  of  the  **next  reading"  variety  were 
much  more  likely  to  receive  notice  and  particularly  to 
pull  trade,  if  they  appeared  alongside  of  a  story  or 
article  which  was  related  to  the  context  of  the  adver- 
tisement. This  is  an  instance  of  the  advantageous 
aspects  of  the  law. 

An  experiment  conducted  at  the  University  of  Michi- 
gan on  the  effects  of  the  surroundings  upon  the  pleasing- 
ness  of  advertisements  points  in  the  same  direction.  In 
the  experiment,  various  advertisements  of  Kellogg^s 
Toasted  Corn  Flakes  were  arranged  on  a  large  page, 
surrounded  by  advertisements  of  other  commodities. 

The  method  of  paired  comparisons  was  used  and  a 
total  of  99  persons  experimented  upon.  Each  adver- 
tisement was  compared  with  every  other,  and  each 
person  was  asked  to  make  a  preference  judgment  in 
each  case  where  it  was  possible  to  do  so.  He  was  to 
consider  in  each  case  the  Toasted  Corn  Flake  advertise- 
ments but  might  be  influenced  by  the  surroundings 
amongst  which  it  appeared. 

The  order  of  pleasingness,  as  determined  by  the  ex- 
periment, is  shown  in  the  table  which  is  given  below. 

*  Scott,  W.  D.,  Advertising  and  Selling,  January,  1916. 


FUSIONS 


201 


Ad.  Ntjmber 

Rank  in 

Pleasingness 

Surrounding  Advertisements 

9 

X 

Cream  of  Wheat 
Candy  —  FluJQFy  Ruffles 
Popcorn  and  peanut  business 
Snider's  Pork  and  Beans 

a 

Peters'  Milk  Chocolate 

Yale  Locks 

Travelers  Insurance  Co. 

8 

S 

American  Optical  Co. 

t 

4 

Peters'  Milk  Chocolate 
Tiffany  and  Co. 
Eastman  Kodak  Co. 

xo 

5 

Bachelor's  Friend  Hosiery 

Onjrx  Hosiery 

Cat's  Paw  Rubber  Heds 

7 

6 

Crystal  Domino  Sugar 

Globe- Wernicke  Co. 

Arts  and  Decoration  Magazine 

6 

7 

Baker  Electrics 
Detroit  Electric 
Pratt  "so" 

4 

8 

American  Magazine 
Annette  Kellermann 
A.  B.  A.  Cheques 

S 

9 

Baker  Electrics 
Tire  repair  outfit 
Dixon's  Motor  Graphite 
The  Franklin  Automobile 

3 

xo 

Buster  Brown  Damless  Hosieiy 

Karpen  Furniture 

Fadse  Hair 

Remoh  Gems 

Barker's  Exercises 

White  Valley  Gems 

Lock-Stitch  Awl 

Wheel  Chairs 

Mushrooms 

w 


202     ADVERTISING  AND   ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 


I 


It  will  be  seen  that  the  most  pleasing  impression  is 
produced  by  the  advertisement  of  a  breakfast  food  when 
it  appears  alongside  of  other  food  advertisements.  On 
the  average,  it  may  be  said  that  the  affective  value  of 
the  advertisement  decreased  as  the  surrounding  space 
was  given  less  and  less  to  the  advertisements  of  other 
foods.  When  no  other  foods  appeared  among  the 
neighboring  advertisements,  the  effectiveness  of  the 
Corn  Flake  advertisement  decreased  by  slightly  more 
than  12  per  cent.  The  next  most  pleasing  setting  for 
the  breakfast  food  advertisement  was  found  when  the 
other  appeals  were  of  a  homogeneous  nature.  The 
lowest  values  were  found  when  the  surroundings  were 
filled  with  an  absolutely  heterogeneous  mass  of  small 
advertisements. 

In  explanation,  it  may  be  said  that  since  the  various 
elements  which  are  attended  to  in  immediate  succession 
tend  to  become  associated,  the  various  advertisements 
which  appear  together  likewise  become  connected. 
Consequently,  if  two  pleasing  advertisements  appear 
on  neighboring  spaces,  each  will  add  to  the  pleasantness 
of  the  other.  If  one  is  pleasant  and  the  other  unpleasant, 
they  wiU  mutuaUy  detract  each  from  the  other.  Even 
if  both  are  pleasant,  but  contain  somewhat  different 
messages,  the  effect  is  likely  to  be  detrimental  to  both. 

3.  In  the  third  place,  the  advertisement  is  perceived 
not  only  in  terms  of  the  considerations  already  given, 
but  is  affected  decidedly  by  the  medium  in  which  it 
occurs.  A  medium  which  guarantees  its  advertise- 
ments, especially  if  this  fact  is  emphasized,  is  particu- 
larly valuable.  For  the  guarantee  reacts  upon  the  ad- 
vertisement, causing  it  to  give  an  impression  of  worth 
and  honesty  which  is  particularly  valuable.  Thts 
notion,  in  process  of  time,  tends  to  become  associated 
with  both  the  commodity  and  the  firm  which  manufac- 
tures it. 


FUSIONS 


203 


In  a  similar  manner,  an  advertisement  is  influenced 
by  the  character  of  the  medium  in  which  it  appears. 
A  magazine  or  periodical  which  stands  for  truth,  ac- 
curacy, or  moral  tone  is  likely  by  association  to  give  the 
same  impression  concerning  the  advertisements  which 
appear  in  its  pages.  A  magazine  which  is  classed  as 
cheap  will  tend  likewise  to  cheapen  and  detract  from  the 
pulling  power  of  the  advertisements  which  it  carries. 
Advertisements  printed  upon  a  poor  quality  of  paper  tend 
also  to  become  associated  with  the  grade  of  the  paper. 

4.  Under  the  same  general  principle  may  be  grouped 
the  advertisements  of  rival  commodities  which  occur 
near  together.  As  a  result  of  this  the  trade  name,  or 
slogan,  or  trade-mark  is  likely  to  become  associated  with 
the  wrong  commodity,  thereby  representing  a  waste  of 
space.  The  results  of  an  experiment  bear  this  out. 
The  experiment  consisted  in  showing  50  persons  ;^^ 
different  trade-marks,  slogans,  etc.,  and  asking  them  to 
give  the  commodity  which  always  carried  the  slogan  or 
trade-mark  in  its  advertisements.  Some  of  the  peculiar 
responses  were  as  follows : 

1.  Several  subjects  gave  the  answer  "Little  fat 
tailor"  to  the  slogan,  "Who^s  your  tailor?"  Others 
said,  "Hart,  Schaffner  &  Marx,"  and,  "The  Royal 
Tailors." 

2.  The  well-known  Cream  of  Wheat  negro  suggested 
cocoa,  soup,  baking  powder,  Postum,  and  Shredded 
Wheat. 

3.  "61 "  was  associated  with  stove poKsh  and  whiskey. 

4.  "P.  A."  was  a  cigar. 

5.  "London  Life"  suggested  insurance  and  a  maga- 
zine. 

6.  "Rubberset"  meant  typewriters,  rubber  heels, 
and  autos. 

7.  "Hasn't  scratched  yet"  meant  underwear  and  a 
fountain  pen. 


If, 


204     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

8.  "99t^  per  cent  pure"  quite  frequently  meant 
alcohol  or  baking  powder. 

9.  "1847"  had  a  variety  of  answers,  of  which 
Duffy's  pure  malt  whiskey,  gin,  and  the  date  of  the 
Dutch  immigration  to  America  are  the  most  significant. 

10.  "  2  in  I "  was  frequently  mistaken  for  3  in  i  Oil. 

11.  "iEtna"  was  a  cigarette,  a  parlor  car,  a  biscuit, 
and  a  non-skid  chain. 

Not  only  does  the  successful  appeal  of  an  advertise- 
ment depend  upon  the  various  situations  in  which  the 
advertisement  finds  itself,  the  previous  advertisements 
seen,  and  so  on,  but  it  also  depends  upon  the  fusion  of 
the  different  parts  of  the  advertisement  itself.  The 
great  majority  of  advertisements  are  made  up  of  both 
illustration  and  copy.  The  fusion  of  these  two  is  an 
important  element,  for  if  they  do  not  help  each  other  in 
bearing  the  desired  message,  it  will  be  found  very  diflicult 
to  form  a  correct  typical  idea  of  the  commodity.  The 
use  of  pictures  and  phrases  not  connected  with  the  main 
message  of  the  advertisement  is  therefore  condemned 
from  this  standpoint.  Such  methods  may  have  a  high 
attention  value,  but  so  has  a  snake  or  a  mosquito.  At- 
tention aroused  in  this  way  can  have  but  a  small  fraction 
of  the  effectiveness  that  it  might  have  if  different  devices 
had  been  used.  The  conclusion  seems  to  be  that  the 
picture  and  the  wording  of  the  message  should  be  in 
agreement,  for  this  makes  the  perception  of  the  adver- 
tisement an  easier  matter. 

As  was  pointed  out  by  Scott  *  a  good  many  years  ago, 
the  kind  of  picture  which  is  used  in  the  advertisement 
is  an  important  matter.  A  disagreeable  picture  is 
always  a  poor  thing  to  use,  for  the  unpleasantness 
aroused  by  the  picture  tends  to  become  associated  with 
the  commodity  itself.  In  connection  with  food  adver- 
tisements, for  example,  Scott  points  out  the  inadvis- 

» Scott,  W.  D.,  "The  Psychology  of  Advertising,"  Chapter  XIV. 


FUSIONS 


20$ 


^ 


S 


ability  of  using  pictures  of  animals.  Most  of  us  eat 
meat,  but  we  dislike  to  have  our  attention  called  to  the 
fact  that  the  meat  really  does  come  from  animals.  The 
picture  of  the  animal  calls  attention  to  this  unpleasant 
fact.  It  is  much  better  policy  to  insert  a  picture  of 
some  favorite  cut  of  meat  appearing  upon  a  dish  which 
is  resting  upon  a  table  surrounded  by  a  few  charming 
and  well-dressed  persons.  The  constant  use  of  the  right 
kind  of  illustration  has  succeeded,  by  this  very  process 
of  association  and  perception,  in  building  up  an  atmos- 
phere of  elegance,  refinement,  romance,  and  poetry 
around  a  large  number  of  very  prosiac  and  common- 
place articles  of  diet  and  the  Uke. 

In  the  great  majority  of  cases,  the  use  of  pictures  of 
animals  in  connection  with  food  advertisements  is  to 
be  severely  criticized,  for  it  generally  leads  to  one  or 
both  of  two  impressions  concerning  the  product ;  either 
that  it  is  a  glorified  kind  of  animal  food,  a  staple  which 
the  animals  enjoy  during  the  temporary  absence  of  the 
humans,  or  the  direct  association  is  made  between 
the  food  and  the  animal,  so  that  whenever  the  food 
is  mentioned  the  animal  is  thought  of.  Since  most 
animals  are  dirty  and  very  odorous  in  their  natural 
state,  such  an  association  is,  to  say  the  least,  unfor- 
tunate. 

The  reverse  side  of  this  proposition  is  to  emphasize 
the  cleanHness  of  the  product,  as  has  been  done  so  suc- 
cessfully by  the  Crisco  advertisements.  Most  persons 
disHke  dirt,  especially  in  connection  with  food.  A 
meal  eaten  out  of  thick  and  battle-scarred  "china,"  at 
a  table  covered  with  a  dirty  cloth,  is  nowhere  near  so 
appetizing  as  the  same  meal  eaten  when  clean  table 
linen  and  more  delicate  dishes  are  used.  The  use  of 
pictures  showing  the  latter  condition  in  connection  with 
food  advertisements  in  particular  is  increasing  very 
much.    The    following    advertisement    of    Campbell's 


2o6     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

Soup,  Fig.  VI,  illustrates  the  point.  Two  well-dressed 
women  and  one  man  sitting  around  a  charmingly  deco- 
rated table,  the  butler  about  to  begin  serving  the  meal, 
is  a  simple  description  of  the  picture.  The  obvious 
moral  is  that  Campbell's  is  the  soup  selected  by  persons 
of  wealth,  refinement,  and  good  taste.  Campbell's 
Soup  should  then,  by  association  or  fusion,  come  to 
mean  the  standard  soup,  especially  for  those  who  are 
in  a  financial  position  to  obtain  any  article  that  they 
desire.  Since  it  is  relatively  cheap,  it  may  be  used  by 
any  one,  and  if  the  fusion  works  as  it  is  psychologically 
intended  to,  the  user  of  the  soup  thereby  puts  himself 
in  a  class  socially  with  the  people  of  the  picture.  An- 
other subtilty  in  the  advertisement  is  the  lack  of  the 
second  man.  Without  words,  the  picture  asks.  Would 
you  like  to  make  the  fourth?  and  suggests  that  you 
may  by  the  proper  use  of  Campbell's  Soup. 

Another  advertisement  which  shows  this  second  point 
in  even  a  better  and  more  striking  way  is  the  following 
one  of  the  Eastman  Kodak  Company,  Fig.  VII.  In  it  is 
no  picture  at  all,  simply  a  large  space  where  a  picture 
ought  obviously  to  go.  The  argument  of  the  adver- 
tisement describes  a  Thanksgiving  dinner.  All  of  the 
family  is  present  but  one  person.  What  wouldn't  they 
give  for  her  picture?  The  fusion  here  is  clear.  The 
advertisement  is  directed  to  arousing  in  the  reader  the 
feeling  of  need  for  pictures,  for  the  situation  mentioned 
or  a  similar  one  is  a  very  frequent  occurrence  in  almost 
any  family.  Not  content  with  using  the  argument  of 
the  text  to  implant  the  feeling  of  need,  the  concern  adds 
to  it  by  not  using  a  picture  in  the  advertisement,  but 
leaves  blank  the  space  which  is  usually  given  over  to 
a  picture.  The  immediate  impression  when  the  adver- 
tisement is  first  seen  is  of  the  lack  of  a  picture.  This 
soon  becomes  a  desire  or  need  for  one.  Once  this  need 
is  felt  strongly  enough,  the  individual  will  take  some 


GUPS 


I 


I 


i 


Fig.  VI. 


INTENTIONAL  SECOND  EXPOSURE 


to6     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

Soup,  Fig.  VI,  illustrates  the  point.  Two  well-dressed 
women  and  one  man  sitting  around  a  charmingly  deco- 
rated table,  the  butler  about  to  begin  serving  the  meal, 
is  a  simple  description  of  the  picture.  The  obvious 
moral  is  that  Campbell's  is  the  soup  selected  by  persons 
of  wealth,  refinement,  and  good  taste.  Campbell's 
Soup  should  then,  by  association  or  fusion,  come  to 
mean  the  standard  soup,  especially  for  those  who  are 
in  a  financial  position  to  obtain  any  article  that  they 
desire.  Since  it  is  relatively  cheap,  it  may  be  used  by 
any  one,  and  if  the  fusion  works  as  it  is  psychologically 
intended  to,  the  user  of  the  soup  thereby  puts  himself 
in  a  class  socially  with  the  people  of  the  picture.  An- 
other subtilty  in  the  advertisement  is  the  lack  of  the 
second  man.  Without  words,  the  picture  asks.  Would 
you  like  to  make  the  fourth?  and  suggests  that  you 
may  by  tlie  proper  use  of  Campbell's  Soup. 

Another  advertisement  which  shows  this  second  point 
in  even  a  better  and  more  striking  way  is  the  following 
one  of  the  Eastman  Kodak  Company,  Fig.  VII.  In  it  is 
no  picture  at  all,  simply  a  large  space  where  a  picture 
ought  obviously  ta  gp-  The  argument  of  the  adver- 
tisement describes  a  Thanksgiving  dinner.  All  of  the 
family  is  present  but  one  person.  What  wouldn't  they 
give  for  her  picture?  The  fusion  here  is  clear.  The 
advertisement  is  directed  to  arousing  in  the  reader  the 
feeling  of  need  for  pictures,  for  the  situation  mentioned 
or  a  similar  one  is  a  very  frequent  occurrence  in  almost 
any  family.  Not  content  with  using  the  argument  of 
the  text  to  implant  the  feeling  of  need,  the  concern  adds 
to  it  by  not  using  a  picture  in  the  advertisement,  but 
leaves  blank  the  space  which  is  usually  given  over  to 
a  picture.  The  immediate  impression  when  the  adver- 
tisement is  first  seen  is  of  the  lack  of  a  picture.  This 
soon  becomes  a  desire  or  need  for  one.  Once  this  need 
is  felt  strongly  enough,  the  individual  will  take  some 


Fig.  VI. 


■< 


1 


■ 


j 


FUSIONS 


207 


means  of  satisfying  the  need,  possibly  the  purchasing 
of  a  kodak. 

Another  example,  which  shows  lack  of  fusion  between 
the  picture  and  the  typical  idea  which  the  average  reader 
has  of  the  commodity,  is  the  advertisement  of  Old  Dutch 


The  Absentee. 

It  is  At  day  of  «11  the  year— Thanksgwing 
Day— when  every  member  of  the  family  it  under 
the  home  roof-tree. 

Father  is  skilfully  disjointing  the  jaicy  gobbler, 
and  mother,  with  anxiety  lest  the  meal  shall  .not 
go  well,  sits  opposite,  serving  the  cranberries  and 
;  supervising  the  whole  ceremony ;  little  Johnny  is 
stUcking  a  mighty  drum  stick,  and— and,  Oh! 
but  the  marmalade  is  good. 

Thanksgiving  Day,  the  family  day,  but  mth 
nearly  always  a  regret  that  this  one  or  that  could 
not  be  present.  Had  to  go  to  Mary's  folks  this 
year,  you  know. 

Of  course,  it  doesn't  really  take  the  place  of 
the  absentee,  but  on  such  occasions,  along  with 
.fhe  letter  of  regret— a  new  photograph. 


J 


Fig.  VII 

Cleanser,  Figure  VIII .  It  also  at  the  same  time  illustrates 
the  extreme  difficulty  of  using  any  form  of  pun  in  the 
display.  The  well-known  slogan  of  Old  Dutch  Cleanser 
is  "Chases  dirt."  The  association  which  is  being  made 
in  the  present  advertisement  is  that  dirt  hasn't  a  ghost 
of  a  chance.  The  pun  occurs  in  the  word  ghosi  and  is 
carried  out  in  the  picture  by  making  certain  parts  of 


208     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

the  word  Dirt  appear  ghost-Kke.  From  the  standpoint 
desired,  the  advertisement  must  be  considered  as  some- 
thing of  a  failure.  The  ghostly  dirt  is  sifting  through 
the  energetic  Dutch  maidens  who  should  be  pursuing 
the  dirt,  but  who  are  actually  going  and  looking  in  an 
entirely  different  direction.  The  fusion  suggested  by 
the  advertisement  is  that  the  cleanser  has  nothing  what- 
ever to  do  with  dirt  except  in  a  purely  accidental  sort 
of  way. 

From  these  examples,  it  will  be  clear  that  harmony 
must  exist  between  the  picture  and  the  copy  as  used  in 
any  advertisement,  for  if  there  is  no  agreement,  fusion 
is  rendered  more  diflBicult,  and  incorrect  or  undesirable 
fusions  are  likely  to  result. 

One  of  the  best  instances  of  the  effect  of  past  experi- 
ence upon  the  present  sensory  data  is  to  be  found  in  the 
processes  involved  in  reading.  To  the  unsophisticated 
there  is  no  particular  problem  there,  for  the  words  simply 
get  from  the  page  into  consciousness.  The  entire  pro- 
cess is,  however,  very  complex,  involving  the  action  of 
the  sense  organ,  the  sensory  regions  of  the  brain,  the 
associations  which  give  rise  to  the  meanings,  and  nu- 
merous other  processes.  The  first  part  of  the  process 
may  be  called  physiological  and  the  second  part  psycho- 
logical. 

The  most  interesting  of  the  physiological  processes 
is  the  action  of  the  eyes  during  reading.  There  are  two 
possibilities,  first  that  the  eye  moves  slowly  and  con- 
tinuously across  the  page,  being  stimulated  as  it  goes 
by  the  curves  and  lines  which  make  up  the  letters. 
This  can  be  easily  disproved,  however,  for  it  has  been 
foimd  experimentally  that  it  is  impossible  for  the  eye 
to  make  a  slow  swinging  movement  of  that  sort.  The 
eye,  in  going  from  one  fixation  point  to  another,  moves 
at  an  approximately  constant  rate  for  each  individual. 
The  principal  factor  which  affects  its  rate  of  movement 


' 


Fic.  VIII. 


INTENTIONAL  SECOND  EXPOSURE 


f 


208     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

the  word  Dirt  appear  ghost-like.  From  the  standpoint 
desired,  the  advertisement  must  be  considered  as  some- 
thing of  a  failure.  The  ghostly  dirt  is  sifting  through 
the  energetic  Dutch  maidens  who  should  be  pursuing 
the  dirt,  but  who  are  actually  going  and  looking  in  an 
entirely  different  direction.  The  fusion  suggested  by 
the  advertisement  is  that  the  cleanser  has  nothing  what- 
ever to  do  with  dirt  except  in  a  purely  accidental  sort 
of  way. 

From  these  examples,  it  will  be  clear  that  harmony 
must  exist  between  the  picture  and  the  copy  as  used  in 
any  advertisement,  for  if  there  is  no  agreement,  fusion 
is  rendered  more  difficult,  and  incorrect  or  undesirable 
fusions  are  likely  to  result. 

One  of  the  best  instances  of  the  effect  of  past  experi- 
ence upon  the  present  sensory  data  is  to  be  found  in  the 
processes  involved  in  reading.  To  the  unsophisticated 
there  is  no  particular  problem  there,  for  the  words  simply 
get  from  the  page  into  consciousness.  The  entire  pro- 
cess is,  however,  very  complex,  involving  the  action  of 
the  sense  organ,  the  sensory  regions  of  the  brain,  the 
associations  which  give  rise  to  the  meanings,  and  nu- 
merous other  processes.  The  first  part  of  the  process 
may  be  called  physiological  and  the  second  part  psycho- 
logical. 

The  most  interesting  of  the  physiological  processes 
is  the  action  of  the  eyes  during  reading.  There  are  two 
possibilities,  first  that  the  eye  moves  slowly  and  con- 
tinuously across  the  page,  being  stimulated  as  it  goes 
by  the  curves  and  Knes  which  make  up  the  letters. 
This  can  be  easily  disproved,  however,  for  it  has  been 
found  experimentally  that  it  is  impossible  for  the  eye 
to  make  a  slow  swinging  movement  of  that  sort.  The 
eye,  in  going  from  one  fixation  point  to  another,  moves 
at  an  approximately  constant  rate  for  each  individual. 
Tlie  principal  factor  which  affects  its  rate  of  movement 


Fk..  VIII. 


FUSIONS 


209 


1 


■ 


I 


is  fatigue,  for  when  the  eye  is  tired  the  movement  is 
slower.  It  is  also  true  that  during  a  swinging  move- 
ment of  this  sort  the  eye  is  to  all  intents  and  purposes 
blind  to  objects  in  the  visual  field. 

It  has  been  proved  by  taking  moving  pictures  of  the 
eyes  that  while  reading  they  jump  from  place  to  place 
on  the  line.  The  eye  is  first  fixated  upon  a  place  near, 
but  not  exactly  at,  the  left  end  of  the  line,  thus  giving 
a  snapshot  impression  of  that  region,  and  then  jumps 
to  another  place,  further  to  the  right,  receiving  in  turn 
stimuli  from  that  place.  So,  by  a  succession  of  jumps, 
the  eye  goes  along  the  line  of  print,  receiving  impressions 
during  the  pauses.  When  the  end  of  the  line  is  reached, 
the  eye  swings  back  to  the  beginning  of  the  next  line 
and  the  process  is  repeated.  The  swinging  of  the  eye 
from  place  to  place  takes  very  Httle  time,  whereas  the 
duration  of  the  pauses  between  jumps  is  very  much 
greater,  being  on  the  average  from  six  to  twelve  times 
as  long.  Consequently,  it  may  be  said  that  the  fixation 
pauses  occupy  tiie  greater  part  of  the  time  which  is 
spent  in  reading.  Anything  which  will  reduce  the 
number  of  fixation  pauses  or  their  duration  will  make 
the  reading  of  a  printed  page  easier  as  well  as  shorter. 
Several  of  the  factors  which  influence  the  number  of 
stops  or  the  duration  of  the  stops  are  as  follows : 

I.  In  the  long  line,  there  are  on  the  average  more 
fixation  pauses  than  in  the  short  line,  and,  in  general, 
the  duration  of  the  fixation  pauses  is  greater  in  the 
longer  line.  This  has  been  determined  by  actual  ex- 
periment. Not  only  is  this  true,  but  also  in  reading  the 
long  line,  the  eye  swings  from  point  to  point  are  slower. 
The  reason  is  that  in  a  short  line,  the  angular  distance 
through  which  the  eye  swings  is  small  and  consequently 
accompanied  by  little  fatigue.  As  the  angular  distance 
becomes  greater,  there  is  a  greater  strain  on  the  muscles, 
especially  at  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  the  swing 


2IO     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 


FUSIONS 


211 


which  causes  fatigue.    As  was  shown  above,  fatigue  makes 
An      -r-      J    i?  A    1  •  the  swing  movement 

A  Boy  Tired  of  Asking 
for  Money 


and  without  advice  from  anyone 
decided  to  earn  what  he  needed 
ratiier  than  to  keep  begging  his 
parents  for  it.  He  was  fourteen  years 
old,  enthusiastic,  red-blooded  — a 
regular  out-of-doorsboy.  He  reasoned 
that  he  could  do  what  thousands  of 
other  boys  had  done  before  him — 
and  do  it  as  well  as  they. 

He  undertook  to  sell  the  Curtis  publica- 
tions in  his  own  town.  Customers  gladly 
bought  from  him.  In  a  short  time  he  had 
developed  a  route  of  50  readers  and  was 
securing  more  each  week.  He  now  had  the 
money  he  needed  (and  it  was  his  because 
he  had  earned  it),  he  had  a  growing  balance 
in  the  local  bank,  and  he  had  won  a 
camera  and  several  other  splendid  prizes. 

We  want  more  boys  like  him — wide- 
awake chaps  who  prefer  to  earn  for  them- 
selves the  money  they  need,  who  want  the 
things  all  boys  want,  and  who  are  looking 
for  some  way  to  get  them. 

Are  you  such  a  boy?  If  you  are,  drop  us 
a  postcard.  We  want  to  tell  you  just  how, 
in  a  few  hours  each  week,  you  can  earn  the 
spending  money  you  need  and  be  your 
own  boss;  how  you  can  secure,  free  of 
charge,  a  camera,  a  bicycle,  a  tool  chest — 
practically  anything  you  want. 

Just  as  soon  as  we  hear  from  you,  we'll 
send  you  an  illustrated  catalogue  describ- 
ing over  five  hundred  fine  prizes  you  f^n 
win  in  addition  to  your  cash  profits. 

Box  750,  Safes  DariMion 

The  Curtis  Publishing  Company 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Fig.  IX.  —  Number  ig.    Full  size. 


of  the  eyes  take  place 
at  a  slower  rate. 
Experiments  have 
shown  that  there 
are  two  lengths  of 
line  which  are  prac- 
tically ideal  from  the 
standf)oint  of  rate 
and  ease  of  reading. 
These  are  the  line 
the  length  of  which 
equals  the  width 
of  the  newspaper 
column,  about  2  to 
2}4:  inches,  and  the 
length  of  line  of  the 
average  novel,  about 
33^  inches.  It  has 
been  found  that 
these  lines  are  read 
with  fewer  stops 
and  on  the  average 
shorter  stops  than 
lines  of  greater  or 
lesser  length. 

2.  The  familiarity 
or  ease  of  the  mate- 
rial also  makes  for 
shorter  and  fewer 
stops.  Familiar 

words  should  there- 
fore be  used  as  far 


as  possible.  Ideas 
which  are  familiar  are  likewise  read  more  quickly  than 
those  which  are  relatively  more  unfamiliar. 


,    rjuill    VI 


»wfl 


3.  Lower-case  letters  are  read  more  easily  and  with 
fewer  stops  than  upper-case  or  capitals.     The  reason 
usually  given  is  this.    We  do  not  ordinarily  read  by 
letters,  syllables  or  words,  but  by  ideas.     Each  word 
stands  for  or  represents  an  idea.    Long  practice  has 
made  us  familiar  with  word 
forms  so  that  it  is  not  nec- 
essary to  spell  the  words 
through.      Each    is  recog- 
nized at  a  glance  because 
of  its  peculiar  form.     It  is 
like   the  recognition   of   a 
person.     We  do  not  stop 
and  say  that  this  is  John 
Doe  because  the  total  im- 
pression  is   of   blue   eyes, 
brown    hair,    six    feet    of 
height,     180     pounds     of 
weight,  and  so  on.    All  of 
these  things  are  fused  to- 
gether and  the  recognition 
of  the  individual  is  immedi- 
ate.   Likewise  the  recogni- 
tion of  words  is  immediate 
because   each  word   has  a 
different   appearance  from 
every  other.     When  lower- 
case letters  are  used  this  is 
especially    true,    for    here 
the  letters  composing  the  word  differ  in  height  or  dis- 
tance above  the  line,  distance  below  the  line,  and  thick- 
ness.   This  fact  gives  each  word  a  characteristic  form 
which  is  immediately  recognized.     With  the  upper-case 
letters,  however,   the  only   difference   between   letters 
is  their  thickness,  for  they  all  extend  the  same  distance 
above  the  line  and  none  extend  below  the  line.    This 


Fig.  X.  —  Number  i.    Reduced  to 
half  size. 


212     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

makes  the  recognition  of  the  word  form  a  much  more 
difficult  matter.     Experiments  have  indicated  that  the 


FUSIONS 


213 


Tiffany  &  Cq 


Moderate  prices  as  well  as 
the  highest  standard  op 

QJlALmr  ARE  CHARACTERISTIC  OF 
Tlf  FANY  &  CalS  ENTIRE  STOCK 

JEWELRY 
PEARLS 
DIAMONDS 
WATCHES 
NOVELTIES 

STAnoNEror 

BRONZES 
CLOCKS 
CHINA 
GLASS 
SILVER 

COBRESPONDCNCE  INVHEaTHETlfTANT 
BUIC  BoORVnU.  BE  SENT  UPON  REQUEST 

Rrra  Avenue  &37^Street 
NevYork 


4.  The  type  face  is  also  an  important  feature.  Ex- 
periments by  Scott  have  shown  that  the  thickness  of  the 
lines  which  make  up  the  letter  determines  not  only  the 
reading  time  but  the  number  of  errors  made  in  reading. 
A  thin,  faint  type  occasions  many  errors  and  makes 
for  slow  reading.    Miss  Roethlein  ^  made  a  series  of 


You  nay,  for  example,  go  ap  to 
New  London  (or  the  Har^ntn)- 
Yalc  boat  race.     When   your 
observation  car  takes  its  creaking  way 
to   the   middle   of    the   drawbridge, 
Vanity  Fair  will  be  there  to  record  the 


I(  by  chance  yoa  sit  in  the  evening 
on  the  terrace  oi  the  Cafe  de  Paris 
watching;  the  new  fashions  as  they 
pau  all  around  yoo  in  the  dusk. 
Vanity  Fair  will  be  at  your  elbow. 

In  the   diroog  at   the    Newport 


Casino  next  AuftMt  when  McLougfc* 
lin  tries  conclusions  with  one  or 
another  of  the  foreign  tennis  players 
— Vanity  Fair  will  be  ready  to  take 
photographs  of  the  matches  and  of, 
the  spectators. 

When  through  clouds  of  dust  yoo 
motor  to  Mea?dowbrook  for  the  Polo, 
there  also  will  be  Vanity  Fair. 

And  when  you  go  out  on  a  yacht  to 
Sandy  HooV  to  see  the  newest  Sham* 
rock  race  the  newest  Defender,  Vanity 
Fair  will  once  more  be  with  you. 


•I 


ft 


Fig.  XI.  —  Number  12.  Though  printed  throughout  in  upper-case  letters,  the 
arrangement  of  the  advertisement  is  such  that  it  is  easily  read.  Reduced 
to  half  size. 

lower-case  letters  may  be  read  at  an  average  rate  of 
5.01  per  second,  whereas  upper-case  letters  are  read  at 
the  rate  of  4.55  per  second. 


For  HtflgiKV,  nppost  you  buy  tht  Junt  number  to-day  and 
ttt  for  yourstlf  how  entertainingly  it  presentt  the  various  things 
Ihal  iiHertfting  people  are  doing  this  week.  But  Vanity  Fair 
if  ut»ful  at  well  as  enterteiming.  Unless  you  already  know 
what  a  practical,  as  well  as  a  cheerful  and  amusing  magatine 
it  it,  tht  Junt  uumber  way  be  a  revelation.    Secure  it  to-day. 

Fig.  Xn.  — Number  8A  and  8B.  Reduced  to  half  size.  The  results  of  the 
experiment  with  this  advertisement  are  especially  interesting  in  showing 
the  rapid  rate  at  which  letters  printed  in  italics  are  read. 

experiments  upon  the  relative  legibility  of  different 
faces  of  type.  Her  method  was  to  determine  the  dis- 
tance at  which  the  lower-case  letter  could  be  correctly 
identified.    The  distances  are  given  in  centimeters. 

'^^^  Distance 

News  Gothic 155 

Gushing  O.S [    163 

Century  O.  S 162 

Century  Expanded *    15^ 

Cheltenham  Wide 150 

Scotch  Roman i^j 

Bulfinch       .*     i^Q 

Caslon .149 

Cushing  Monotone 144 

•  Roethlein,  American  Journal  of  Psychology,  Vol.  23,  pages  1-36. 


1» 


214 


ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 


Considerably  different  results  might  have  been  ob- 
tained if  entire  words  had  been  used,  for  here  the  word 
form  would  have  aided  considerably ;  and  if  context  too 
were  added,  stiU  different  results  might  easily  have  been 

found.  . 

In  an  experiment  performed  at  the  Umversity  of 
Michigan  upon  reading,  a  group  of  twenty  advertise- 
ments was  mounted  upon  cardboard  and  each  one  read 
through  by  50  persons.  The  average  number  of  words 
read  per  second  was  determined.  The  advertisements 
are  reproduced  in  the  accompanying  figures. 


Advekxiseicxnt 
I 

3 

3 

4 

5 
6 

7fl 

7b 

8a 

&b 

9 

10 

II 
12 

13  « 
136 

13  c 

14 

IS 
16 

17 
18 

19 
20 


WOSDS  KEAD  PEft  SECOND 

2.38 
4.40 

3-56 
4.96 
5.22 

S.05 
5.21 

5-49 
5-12 
3.42 
4.24 

3-33 
4-32 
4.91 

4-93 
3.37 
4.10 

4.87 
4,91 

5-33 
4.78 

5-93 
S-50 


It  will  be  seen  that  in  No.  19,  more  than  twice  as 
many  words  were  read  per  second  than  with  No.  i, 
which  proved  to  be  the  worst  of  the  lot  from  the  stand- 
point of  rate  of  reading.  A  study  of  the  advertisements 
which  were  read  rapidly  will  show  that  they  conform 


FUSIONS 


215 


very  well  to  the  rules  which  have  been  laid  down.  Those 
which  were  read  slowly  have  usually  some  glaring  fault. 
In  No.  I  the  print  runs  on  a  diagonal,  consequently 
calling  for  very  unnatural  eye  movements.  Likewise 
the  letters  are  obscured  by  the  picture  of  the  globe  and 
filament.  No.  11  is  printed  throughout  in  capital  letters 
and  the  letters  are  gray,  not  black,  offering  little  contrast 
to  the  white  background.  No.  9  is  printed  in  letters  so 
large  that  it  is  impossible  to  get  the  impression  of  the 
word  form  at  the  normal  reading  distance. 

The  interpretation  of  the  words  as  they  are  printed 
goes  on  in  the  same  way  that  any  other  association 
takes  place.  Our  first  experiences  are  usually  with 
concrete  objects.  The  object  is  seen  again  and  again, 
the  different  experiences  becoming  associated  so  that 
each  may  in  turn  call  up  any  of  the  others.  The 
visual  experience  may  stand  for  the  auditory,  or  the 
gustatory,  or  any  other  experience  which  we  may  have 
had.  Then  the  object  receives  a  name,  and  the  name, 
in  process  of  time,  becomes  associated  with  the  object, 
so  that  when  the  name  is  uttered,  some  image  of  the 
object  is  called  up.  Later  still,  we  are  taught  that  cer- 
tain arbitrary  visual  symbols  represent  certain  sounds, 
and  the  sound  having  been  associated  with  the  object 
in  the  past,  these  visual  symbols  serve  now  to  call  up 
an  image  of  the  object.  Because  of  this  fact,  that  the 
word  is  associated  with  the  various  other  ways  of  ex- 
periencing the  object,  it  calls  up  the  object  and  is  con- 
sequently understood. 


CHAPTER  XII 


Memory 


In  this  chapter,  certain  complex  phases  of  the  recall 
process  wijl  be  taken  up,  under  the  general  name  of 
memory.  *  By  memory  is  meant  the  awareness  of  things 
not  present  to  the  senses  with  the  additional  awareness 
that  we  have  had  a  like  experience  in  the  past.  An 
analysis  of  the  memory  process  shows  that  it  is  composed 
of  four  phases  —  learning,  retention,  recall,  and  recog- 
nition. 

Learning  is  simply  the  act  of  forming  associations; 
retention,  keeping  the  modifications  in  the  bram;  re- 
call, the  passing  of  a  new  nerve  current  over^  the  modi- 
fied brain  regions ;  and  recognition,  the  linking  up,  by 
means  of  association,  the  present  experience  with  the 
past.  In  addition  to  the  laws  quoted  in  Chapter  X 
for  the  ready  and  easy  formation  of  associations,  certain 
others  have  been  worked  out  from  a  consideration  of 
other  principles.  Most  of  the  laws  have  been  deter- 
mined by  the  use  of  very  abstract  material,  nonsense 
syllables.  A  nonsense  syllable  is  composed  of  two 
consonants  separated  by  a  vowel,  the  combination  not 
making  sense  in  any  language  with  which  the  subject 
is  familiar.  Beb  would  be  a  nonsense  syllable,  bib 
would  not.  Such  material  was  used  because  it  was 
thought  that  there  would  be  no  accidental  associations 
between  such  manufactured  words  as  would  probably 
exist  between  words  which  make  sense.  The  nonsense 
syllables  were  supposed  to  present  homogeneous  material 

ai6 


MEMORY 


217 


as  far  as  difficulty  of  learning  is  concerned.  Other  ex- 
periments have  indicated  that  the  results  obtained  by 
the  use  of  nonsense  syllables  can  be  transferred,  with 
modifications  only  of  amount  remembered,  to  the  leam- 


1200- 


1000 


•'  1 


Fig.  XUI.  —  Curve  showing  that  the  amount  learned  varies  directly  with  the 

niunber  of  repetitions. 

ing  of  sense  material.  Consequently,  the  general  laws 
of  learning  as  determined  by  these  experiments  will  be 
given,  and  later  on  the  results  of  other  experiments  in 
which  advertising  material  was  employed. 


I 


2i8     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

I.  The  first  of  the  laws  is  that  the  amount  learned 
varies  directly  with  the  number  of  repetitions.  If  it 
reqdres  sixteen  repetitions  to  learn  ten  nonsense  syl- 
lables, they  will  be  half  learned  with  eight  repetitions. 
It  must  be  pointed  out  that  there  is  considerable  differ- 
ence between  half  learning  and  learning  half  of  such  a 
series.  At  the  end  of  eight  repetitions,  the  subject 
probably  could  not  repeat  five  of  the  syllables.  What  is 
meant  is  this :  if  learning  is  the  formation  of  associations 
and  the  forming  of  associations  is  the  wearing  down  of 
resistance  of  synapses,  the  work  of  forming  the  associ- 
ation is  half  done  with  half  the  number  of  repetitions. 

This  was  proved  by  Ebbinghaus  in  the  following  man- 
ner. Series  consisting  of  sixteen  nonsense  syllables 
were  read  a  given  number  of  times,  either  8,  i6,  24,  32, 
42,  53,  or  64.  After  twenty-four  hours,  the  series  was 
releamed  and  the  number  of  seconds  necessary  for  the 
releaming  was  determined.  This  time  was  compared 
with  the  number  of  seconds  necessary  to  learn  an  entirely 
unfamiliar  series.  The  results  as  shown  in  the  table 
below  indicate  that  if  the  series  of  syUables  was  entirely 
unfamiliar,  it  took  an  average  time  of  1270  seconds  to 
learn  it.  If  the  series  had  been  repeated  eight  times, 
however,  it  took  an  average  of  only  11 67  seconds  to 
relearn  it  24  hours  after. 


No.  or 
Refetitions 

o 

8 

16 

24 

32 

42 

S3 
64 


No.  or  Secxjnds  to 
Relearm  Attek  24  Houss 

1270 
1167 
1078 

975 
863 

697 

585 
454 


This  table  is  plotted  graphically  in  Fig.  XIII.    Since 
the  result  is  a  straight  line,  it  may  be  considered  that 


( 


9 


» 


MEMORY 


219 


the  law  is  demonstrated.  Ebbinghaus,  himself,  proves 
it  in  a  different  way,  viz.,  by  dividing  the  time  saved  by 
the  preceding  repetitions.  He  found  that  for  each 
repetition  which  had  been  made  24  hours  before,  there 
was  a  saving  in  relearning  of  12.7  seconds,  with  an  aver- 
age variation  of  0.3  second. 

As  applied  to  advertising,  this  means  that  the  adver- 
tiser, in  order  to  make  his  commodity  remembered,  must 
insert  his  advertisement  with  considerable  frequency. 

2.  The  amount  remembered  in  any  series  depends 
upon  the  length  of  the  series.  This  was  brought  out  in 
Miss  Calkins'  experiment  on  association  mentioned  in 
Chapter  X.  It  will  be  recalled  that  in  the  short  series, 
consisting  of  seven  pairs  of  associations,  35  per  cent  of 
the  total  number  were  recalled,  whereas  in  the  longer 
series,  consisting  of  ten  or  twelve  pairs,  only  26  per 
cent  were  remembered. 

Another  way  of  stating  the  same  law  is  that  the  num- 
ber of  repetitions  necessary  to  learn  the  series  varies  with 
the  length  of  the  series.  In  connection  with  the  number 
of  repetitions  necessary  to  learn  nonsense  syllables, 
Myers  ^  quoting  from  Ebbinghaus  gives  the  following 
figures : 


No.  of  syllables  . 
No.  of  repetitions 


12 


16 


24 


36 


16.6 


30 


44 


SS 


Meumann  ^  gives  the  following  figures,  which  show  a  con- 
siderably fewer  number  of  repetitions  to  be  necessary : 


No.  of  syllables  . 
No.  of  repetitions 


8 


12 


16      18 


24      36 


5.2      10.4        17      21.5 


30      325 


3.  A  third  law,  which  has  been  suggested  by  the  work 
upon  association,  is  that  the  first  and  last  parts  of  a 

*  Myers,  **  Textbook  of  Experimental  Psychology,"  page  158. 

*  Meumann,  "The  Psychology  of  Learning,"  page  276. 


i 
f 


220     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

series  are  learned  with  fewer  repetitions  than  the  middle 
portion.  To  quote  again  from  Myers :  ^  "When  a  series 
of  ten  or  twelve  members  is  learnt  by  the  prompting 
method,  it  is  seen  that  the  impression  made  by  the  dif- 
ferent members  varies  according  to  their  position  in  the 
series.  The  following  experimental  data  indicate  that 
the  first  member  of  the  series  is  most  easily  remembered, 
that  the  second  and  last  members  follow  next  " : 


Order  or  Words  m  Series 

No.  OF  Prompts  12  Words 

No.  or  Prompts  10  Words 

I 

0 

0 

a 

II 

3 

3 

21 

6 

4 

135 

9 

5 

35 

23 

6 

36 

24 

7 

36 

31.5 

8 

29-S 

25 

9 

43 

23 

lO 

37.5 

55 

II 

34 

12 

II 

The  same  phenomenon  was  mentioned  under  the  dis- 
cussion of  primacy  and  recency  as  factors  in  association. 
It  will  be  brought  out  even  more  strikingly  in  connection 
with  the  next  experiment  to  be  reported,  an  experiment 
which  was  performed  on  the  memory  value  of  advertise- 
ments. Very  similar  experiments  have  been  undertaken 
by  three  men  at  three  different  universities.  While  the 
results  are  very  similar,  certain  differences,  partly  of 
method  and  partly  of  result,  appear,  which  makes  a 
separate  discussion  of  the  three  sets  of  results  necessary. 

Strong,  at  Columbia,  obtained  results  from  137 
women  showing  the  number  of  advertisements  they 
remembered.    An  article  in  a  popular  magazine  was  as- 

*  Myers,  "Textbook  of  Experimental  Psychology,"  page  159. 


MEMORY 


221 


I 


i 


I 


signed  as  necessary  class  reading.  Each  student  was 
furnished  with  a  copy  of  the  magazine  and  a  week  later 
was  tested  for  the  memory  of  the  advertisements  which 
were  contained  in  it.  The  recognition  test  was  em- 
ployed, each  person  being  handed  an  envelope  contain- 
ing all  of  the  full  page  advertisements  which  had  ap- 
peared in  the  magazine  together  with  a  fair  number  of 
others  and  was  asked  to  select  those  which  were  remem- 
bered to  have  been  in  the  magazine. 

The  chart  showing  the  relative  memory  values  of  the 
different  pages  in  the  front  and  back  sections  of  the  mag- 
azine as  determined  by  Strong  is  given  below.  Fig.  XIV. 

Starch  ^  gives  certain  other  details  of  this  experiment. 
Of  the  137  women  who  were  tested,  — 

"  46  %  could  not  recognize  a  single  advertisement  afterward. 
24  %  could  recognize  from  i  to  10  advertisements  each. 
30 %  could  recognize  from  ii  to  50  advertisements  each. 
Of  the  24  %,  16  %  could  recognize  from  i  to  5  each, 

8  %  could  recognize  from  6  to  10  each, 
Of  the  30  %,  15  %  could  recognize  from  11  to  20  each, 

9  %  could  recognize  from  21  to  30  each, 
3  %  could  recognize  from  31  to  40  each, 
3  %  could  recognize  from  41  to  50  each. 

"...  The  24  per  cent  are  those  readers  who  noticed 
only  the  advertisements  in  preferred  positions.  Colimm 
A  represents  those  advertisements  that  were  within  ten 
pages  either  of  cover  or  reading  matter;  Column  B 
represents  those  advertisements  that  were  more  than 
ten  pages  from  a  cover  or  reading  matter. 


Column  A 

Column  B 

46  %  of  the  women  remembered      .    . 

24  %  of  the  women  remembered      .     . 

30  %  of  the  women  remembered      .     . 

Total  of  the  137  women      .     . 

0% 

5% 

15% 

6% 

0% 
1% 
9% 
3% 

1  Starch,  "  Advertising,"  page  106. 


222     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

"  These  figures  show  that  the  advertisements  in  and 
near  the  preferred  positions  have  double  the  memory 
value  of  those  which  are  submerged  in  the  body  of  the 
advertising  sections." 

A  like  experiment,  in  which  374  persons  were  tested, 
was  conducted  by  Starch.^  The  Cosmopolitan  for  April, 
1910,   and    Everybody s    for   March,    1909,    were    the 


— ..^TRONQ 
.^...STARCH 
^DAMS 


FRONT   SECTION 


BACK    SECTION 


Fig.  XIV.  — The  curves  show  the  relative  memory  value  of  the  different  parts 
of  the  front  and  back  advertising  sections  of  the  standard  magazine. 

magazines  used.  The  subjects  were  given  fifteen  min- 
utes to  turn  every  page  in  the  advertising  section  and 
were  told  to  read  what  they  chose  and  to  skip  what 
they  chose.  To  correct  for  the  fact  of  familiarity, 
since  undoubtedly  many  of  the  advertisements  were 
well  known  to  the  readers,  he  asked  each  of  those  who 
partook  of  the  test  to  write  down  all  of  the  brands  of 

1  Starch,  "Advertising,"  pages  30-34,  211-312. 


MEMORY 


223 


articles  he  was  familiar  with  either  through  advertising, 
use,  or  otherwise. 

The  main  facts  are  brought  out  by  the  curve  shown 
in  Fig.  XIV.  Starch  concludes  from  the  experiment 
"that  the  outside  cover  is  probably  at  least  three  times 
as  valuable  as  any  inside  position,  (2)  that  all  positions 
within  approximately  eight  pages  from  the  end  of  the 
advertising  section  have  greater  value  than  other  in- 


FRONT  SECTION  BACK  SECTION 

Fig  XV  —  Curve  showing  the  average  memory  value  of  the  different  parts  of 
the  front  and  back  advertising  sections  of  the  standard  magazine.  -^  "^'^ 
curve  is  the  result  of  combining  the  three  given  in  Fig.  XIV. 


This 


side  positions.  These  values  gradually  diminish  as  in- 
dicated by  the  drop  of  the  curve.  This  advantage 
does  not  extend  as  far  into  the  advertising  section  from 
either  end  of  the  reading  section.  (Apparently  it  extends 
only  over  four  pages.)  The  positions  facing  the  first 
and  last  pages  of  reading  matter  have  approximately 
two  thirds  of  the  value  of  the  outside  cover."  ^ 
A  similar  experiment  was  performed  on  a  group  of  89 

1  Starch,  "Advertising,"  page  112. 


I 

I 


224     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

students  at  the  University  of  Michigan,  in  which  the 
magazine  used  was  the  Cosmopolitan  for  March,  191 3. 
The  curve  showing  the  memory  value  of  the  different 
advertising  pages  is  appended,  Fig,  XIV. 

The  next  step  in  the  problem  is  to  put  the  three 
curves  together.  It  seems  to  be  fair  to  do  this,  in  spite 
of  the  differences  in  method  which  were  employed.  The 
fusion  of  the  three  curves  was  accomplished  by  taking 
the  high  point  on  each,  calling  that  100  per  cent  and  re- 
ducing the  other  values  of  that  curve  to  percentages  of 
the  100.  When  this  is  done,  the  following  curve,  Fig.  XV, 
is  obtained,  showing  the  average  results  of  the  three 
experiments. 

Since  the  results  in  all  of  these  memory  experiments 
are  liable  to  large  error  on  account  of  familiarity  of  the 
material,  the  chance  position  of  advertisements  which 
aroused  considerable  interest  in  several  of  the  observers, 
and  other  similar  considerations,  the  results  obtained 
from  them  should  be  compared  with  the  results  of  other 
experiments  which  were  conducted  on  a  more  scientific 
basis.  Starch  and  Hollingworth  both  have  performed 
experiments  with  more  abstract  or  at  least  more  homo- 
geneous material  and  their  results  will  be  mentioned 
briefly. 

Starch  used  a  pamphlet  containing  six  pages  of  the 
standard  magazine  size.  Upon  the  center  of  each 
page  was  placed  a  nonsense  syllable.  This,  or  another 
pamphlet  which  was  made  up  in  the  same  way  and  in 
which  the  same  syllables  were  used  but  distributed 
differently,  was  handed  to  50  persons  who  were  asked  to 
read  it  through  and  then  were  given  paper  and  asked  to 
write  down  all  of  the  syllables  which  they  remembered. 
The  results  show  that  the  syllables  occurring  on  the  first 
and  last  pages  were  remembered  34  times.  Those  on 
the  second  and  next  to  the  last  page  were  remembered 
26  times,  while  the  average  for  those  on  all  of  the  other 


MEMORY 


225 


pages  was  17.    It  will  be  seen  that  the  middle  pages 
were  remembered  only  half  as  often,  17  to  34,   as  the 

outside  pages.^  , ,       .  .4. 

Hollingworth  approached  the  problem  m  a  somewhat 
different  way.  Instead  of  using  nonsense  syllables,  he 
employed  geometrical  figures.  The  magazine  contained 
20  pages,  10  in  the  front  section  and  10  in  the  back. 
In  the  center  of  each  page  was  affixed  a  geometrical  form 
in  solid  black.  All  of  the  figures  used  were  of  approxi- 
mately the  same  area. 

A  preliminary  experiment  showed  the  attention  value 
of  the  different  figures  so  that  this  could  be  discounted 
by  reducing  all  to  a  common  basis.  After  the  attention 
value  of  the  figures  had  been  determined,  the  book  was 
handed  to  25  persons  who  were  allowed  to  look  it  through 
for  a  limited  time.  Each  person  was  later  presented 
with  50  geometrical  figures  and  asked  to  pick  out  from 
them  the  20  which  had  appeared  in  the  magazine.  The 
results  showed,  (i)  that  the  memory  value  of  the  front 
section  was  considerably  greater  than  that  of  the  back 
section,  i.oo  to  0.69.  (2)  The  page  having  the  highest 
memory  value  was  the  one  facing  the  reading  matter  m 
front  and  the  second  best  was  the  one  facing  the  back 
page  of  reading  matter.  (3)  The  first  page  of  the  front 
section  and  the  last  page  of  the  back  section  had  the 
lowest  memory  values  of  any  of  the  pages  in  their  re- 
spective sections.^ 

The  results  of  the  two  experiments  by  Starch  and 
Hollingworth  apparently  are  quite  different.  Since 
they  were  done  under  such  different  conditions,  the 
material  employed  so  diverse  and  the  make-up  of  the 
two  dummies  so  dissimilar,  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
compare  them.  In  Starch's  there  was  but  one  section, 
in  Hollingworth's  there  were   two,  the  front  and  the 

1  Starch,  "Advertising,"  page  no. 

•Hollingworth,  "Advertising  and  SeUing,"  pages  86-87. 


i 


i 


n 


p 


226     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

back.  The  interruption  may  have  had  something  to  do 
with^  the  greater  memory  value  of  the  pages  facing  the 
reading  matter,  undoubtedly  had  a  great  deal  to  do 
with  it.  Both  emphasize  the  fact  that  there  are  certain 
positions  in  the  advertising  sections  which,  on  the  aver- 
age, have  higher  memory  values  than  the  remaining 
portions,  viz.,  the  extremes,  either  the  beginning  or 
the  end.  Taking  the  two  experiments  together,  it  is 
probable  that  both  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  the 
sections  have  a  higher  memory  value  than  any  other 
part. 

4.  A  fourth  law  is  that  memory  depends  upon  the 
amount  of  attention  which  is  paid   to  the  stimulus. 
Since,  in  the  discussion  of  attention,  it  was  seen  that  the 
size  of  the  stimulus  increased  its  attention  value,  the  larger 
advertisements  ought  to  have  a  greater  memory  value. 
This  is,  on  the  average,  undoubtedly  true  and  is  proved 
by  an  experiment  which  will  be  described  shortly.     In 
the  second  place,  if  a  stimulus  is  repeated,  the  total  amount 
of  attention  which  is  given  it  is  greater  than  if  it  is  pre- 
sented only  once.    This  will  be  proved  by  the  same 
experiment.    But    a    third   possibility   presents    itself. 
Which  will  have  the  greater  attention  value  and  con- 
sequently the  greater  memory  value,  two  or  more  ad- 
vertisements which  are  exactly  alike  or  two  or  more 
advertisements  of  the  same  commodity  which  are  dif- 
ferent in  make-up?    It  also  appeared  that  the  page 
position  played  a  part   in  determining   the  attention 
given  to  the  advertisement;  and,  lastly,  the  so-caUed 
interest   incentives  are   supposed  to  be  more  effective 
than   those   which   are  purely  mechanical.    The   fol- 
lowing experiments  throw  some  light  upon  these  ques- 
tions : 

Two  dummies  were  prepared ,  one  of  which  contained  ad- 
vertisements repeated  in  duplicate.  The  other  consisted 
of  advertisements  of  the  same  commodities,  but  the  repe- 


MEMORY 


227 


titions  were  variations,  not  duplicates.    The  first  dummy, 
in  which  duplicates  were  used,  was  made  up  as  follows : 

4  full  page  advertisements  appeared  once, 
4  full  page  advertisements  appeared  twice, 
4  full  page  advertisements  appeared  4  times. 

4  half  page  advertisements  appeared  once, 
4  half  page  advertisements  appeared  twice, 
4  half  page  advertisements  appeared  4  times. 

4  quarter  page  advertisements  appeared  once, 
4  quarter  page  advertisements  appeared  twice, 
4  quarter  page  advertisements  appeared  4  times. 

The  second  dummy  was  made  up  in  the  same  way, 
variations  of  advertisements  of  the  same  commodity 
being  used  instead  of  duplicates.  The  advertisements 
were  all  the  size  of  those  contained  in  the  Saturday 
Evening  Post.  The  same  subjects,  40  in  munber,  were 
used  in  both  tests. 

Each  subject  was  handed  one  of  the  dummies  and 
was  told  to  look  it  over  at  his  leisure,  turning  each 
page  of  the  advertising  section.  The  average  time 
taken  by  each  subject  with  each  dummy  was  about  ten 
minutes.  After  finishing  with  the  dummy,  he  was  in- 
structed to  write  down  all  that  he  coidd  remember 
about  the  advertisements  which  he  had  seen.  One 
week  or  more  afterwards,  he  was  handed  the  other  dummy 
and  given  the  same  instructions.  Half  of  the  subjects 
started  with  the  dummy  containing  duplicates;  the 
other  half,  with  the  dummy  containing  variations. 

The  results  obtained  from  the  first  dummy  are  pre- 
sented in  the  following  table.  The  figures  show  the  total 
number  of  credits  received  by  each  form  of  presentation 
of  the  material.  Since  in  both  dummies  certain  ad- 
vertisements were  shown  but  once,  the  average  of  the 
results  was  used  to  determine  the  value  of  the  adver- 
tisements shown  but  once : 


328     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 


it. 


i 


i 


' 


Quarter  page 
Half  page  . 
Full  page 


Once 


i6 

32 

47 


Twice 


26 

37 
80 


4  Times 


45 

83 
108 


If  the  quarter  page  shown  once  is  considered  the 
standard  of  stimulation,  the  half  page  shown  once  and 
the  quarter  page  twice  represent  a  doubling  of  the 
stimulation.  Were  both  repetition  and  increase  in  size 
of  equal  value,  the  figures  for  the  half  page  appearing 
once  and  the  quarter  page  appearing  twice  should  be  the 
same,  but  they  are  not,  indicating  rather  that  size  is  a 
more  important  factor  than  repetition.  This  point 
will  shortly  be  considered  more  in  detail.  Similarly,  the 
full  page  shown  once,  the  half  page  shown  twice,  and 
the  quarter  page  shown  four  times  represent  four  times 
the  amount  of  stimulation.  The  full  page  shown  twice 
and  the  half  page  shown  four  times  are  eight  times  the 
standard  stimulus,  and  the  full  page  shown  four  times  is 
sixteen  times  the  standard. 

If  the  table  given  above  is  reduced  to  ratios,  the 
quarter  page  appearing  once  being  taken  as  the  standard, 
the  following  table  is  obtained : 


Quarter  page 
Half  page  . 
FuU  page 


Onck 


I.OO 

2.00 
2.94 


Twice 


1.62 
2.32 
5-00 


4TI1CES 


2.82 

S.I9 
6.76 


If,  from  this  table,  another  one  is  prepared,  showing 
the  effect  of  constantly  doubling  the  amount  of  stimula- 
tion, the  following  is  obtained : 


MEMORY 


229 


Units  of  Stimulation 

I 

2 

4 

8 

16 

1.00 

2.00 
1.62 

2.94 
2.32 
2.82 

S-oo 
5.19 

6.76 

Average .     . 

I.OO 

1.81 

2.69 

S.io 

6.76 

These  ratios  vary  approximately  as  the  1.35  root  of 
the  amount  of  the  stimulus. 

The  differences  in  memory  value  between  repetition 
and  size  have  been  disregarded  in  the  tables  so  far.  The 
table  given  below  shows  the  effect  of  increasing  size. 
The  quarter  page,  no  matter  whether  it  is  presented 
once,  twice,  or  four  times,  is  considered  as  the  standard, 
and  the  half  and  full  page  values  are  reduced  to  ratios 
of  the  quarter  page. 


Once  .  .  . 
Twice  .  . 
4  times     .     . 

Average 


QUAETER 

Half 

I.OO 
I.OO 
I.OO 

2.00 
1.42 
1.84 

I.OO 

1.76 

Fuix 


2.94 
3.08 
2.40 


2.80 


These  ratios  vary  approximately  as  the  1.3  root  of  the 
number  of  presentations  or  amount  of  stimulation,  the 
1.3  root  of  I  being  i,  of  2  approximately  1.70,  and  of  4 
about  2.9. 

Before  tr3dng  to  establish  correlations  between  these 
results  and  those  of  other  investigators,  I  shall  present 
the  rest  of  my  material.  When  all  the  data  are  at  hand, 
definite  relations  will  be  easier  to  establish. 

Turning  now  to  a  consideration  of  the  effects  of  fre- 
quency of  insertion,  we  regard  one  presentation  of  the 


M 


w 


't 


230     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

material  as  the  standard  and  reduce  the  other  values  to 
ratios  of  it.    The  table  showing  these  ratios  follows : 


Ones 

Twice 

4  TniES 

Quarter  page 

Half  page 

Full  page 

I.OO 
I.OO 
I.OO 

1.63 
1. 16 
1.70 

2.81 
2.60 
2.30 

Average 

I.OO 

1.49 

2-57 

Here  we  find  that  the  ratios  vary  approximately  as  the 
1.6  root  of  the  number  of  presentations. 

The  conclusion  which  we  are  forced  to  accept  by  this 
part  of  the  experiment  is  that  size  is  of  more  importance 
in  the  formation  of  associations  than  repetition.  This 
point  will  be  considered  more  in  detail  at  a  later  period. 

With  the  second  dummy,  which  was  made  up  of  varied 
advertisements  of  the  same  commodity  where  repetition 
was  necessary,  the  following  totals  were  received  by  each 
of  the  different  arrangements : 


Quarter  page 
Half  page  . 
Full  page 


Once 


x6 

32 

47 


Twice 


46 

86 

108 


4  Times 


8S 
117 

149 


Reducing  this  table  to  ratios  of  one  presentation  of  the 
quarter  page,  as  was  done  with  the  other  dummy,  we  ob- 
tain the  following : 


Quarter  page 
Half  page  . 
Full  page 


MEMORY 


231 


Another  table,  showing  the  effects  of  repeatedly  dou- 
bling the  amoimt  of  stimulation,  follows : 


Units  of  Stimulation 


Average 


I 

2 

4 

8 

I.OO 

2.00 
2.88 

2.94 

S-37 
S-3I 

6.75 
7-31 

I.OO 

2.44 

454 

703 

16 


931 


9-31 


These  figures  do  not  follow  an  Z"  curve ;  but  they  do 
indicate  quite  forcibly  that  variability  is  a  more  im- 
portant consideration  than  duplication  in  advertising. 

Turning  now  to  the  consideration  of  the  effect  of  size, 
the  following  table  gives  the  ratios,  considering  the 
quarter  page  as  the  standard : 


FXJLL 


Once  .  .  . 
Twice  .  . 
4  times     .     . 

Average 


Quarter 

Half 

1.00 

I.OO 
I.OO 

2.00 
1.84 

1.38 

I.OO 

1.74 

2.94 
2.3s 

1.76 


2.35 


These  figures  agree  fairly  well  with  the  results  ob- 
tained from  the  dummy  containing  duplicates,  giving, 
however,  a  slightly  lower  ratio  for  the  full  page.  The 
average  of  the  two  is  given  below : 


t)uplicates    . 
Variations    . 

Average 


Quarter 

Half 

I.OO 
I.OO 

1.76 
1.74 

I.OO 

1-75 

Full 


2.80 

2-35 


2.58 


^1 


232     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 


MEMORY 


233 


!■ 


d 


1 


A  comparison  of  these  results  with  those  of  other 
experiments  will  now  be  made.  Scott*  found  the  fol- 
lowing ratios,  his  results  being  uncorrected  for  famil- 
iarity : 


Recognition 
Recall      .    . 

Average 


Quarter 

Halt 

I.OO 
I.OO 

2.32 
2.52 

I.OO 

2.42 

Full 


3-74 
5-53 


4.64 


His  general  conclusion  is  that  there  is  a  more  than 
proportionate  increase  in  memory  value  with  increase 
in  size  of  the  advertisements. 

Starch  ^  gives  the  following  figures.  When  the  ratios 
representing  the  memory  value  are  uncorrected  for 
familiarity,  he  obtained  the  first  set  of  ratios ;  when  cor- 
rection was  made  for  familiarity,  he  obtained  the  second : 


Quarter 

Half 

Full 

Two  Pages 

I.(X3 
I.OO 

2.43 
1.77 

523 
3-44 

6.98 
4.41 

Starch's  results  agree  with  Scott's  in  that,  when 
uncorrected  for  familiarity,  they  show  a  more  than 
proportionate  increase  in  memory  value  with  increase 
in  the  amount  of  space  used.  Where  familiarity  is 
allowed  for,  however,  the  ratios  show  a  less  than  pro- 
portionate increase. 

Strong  ^  gives  the  results  of  several  experiments,  show- 
ing the  effect  of  increasing  space.    His  ratios  follow : 

1  Scott,  W.  D.,  "The  Psychology  of  Advertising,"  pages  168-169. 

*  Starch,  D.,  "Advertising,"  pages  30-48. 

*  Strong,  E.  K.,  Psychol.  Rev.,  Vol.  21,  pages  137  ff. 


Quarter 

Half 

Full 

(A) 

(B) 

(C) 

(D) 

(E) 

I.OO 
I.OO 
I.OO 

1.00 

I.OO 

1. 41 
I. II 

2.39 

1-53 
1.66 

215 
113 
3.65 

2.34 
2.41 

Average    .    .    . 

I.OO 

1.62 

2.34 

Strong's  results  indicate  a  less  than  proportionate 
gain  in  memory  value  with  increase  in  size  in  all  cases 
but  one. 

If  we  take  the  results  of  all  of  these  investigations  and 
average  the  ratios,  it  may  bring  out  an  approximate 
truth.  In  averaging  the  ratios,  all  of  the  experiments 
will  be  considered  to  be  of  equal  value,  no  allowance 
being  made  for  the  greater  number  of  subjects  used  in 
certain  of  the  experiments.    The  ratios  are  given  below : 


Full 


Scott   .  .  . 

Scott  .  . 

Starch  .  . 

Starch  .  . 

Strong  .  . 

Strong  .  . 

Strong  .  . 

Strong  .  , 

Strong  .  . 

Adams  .  . 

Adams  .  . 

Average 


Quarter 

Half 

I.OO 

2.32 

I.OO 

2.52 

I.OO 

2.43 

I.OO 

1.77 

I.OO 

1.41 

I.OO 

I. II 

I.OO 

2.39 

I.OO 

1.53 

I.OO 

1.66 

I.OO 

1.76 

I.OO 

1.74 

I.OO 

1.87 

3-74 
553 
5-23 
3-44 
2.IS 
113 
365 
2.34 
2.41 

2.80 
2.3s 


3.16 


These  ratios  for  the  half  and  full  page  spaces  are 
undoubtedly  higher  than  they  should  be.  For  in  four 
of  Strong's  experiments,  in  one  of  Starch's,  and  in  Scott's 
there  is  Uttle  if  any  selection  of  the  advertisements  used. 


1 1 


t    ■ 


I 


234     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

The  general  scheme  was  to  use  the  advertising  section  of 
some  current  magazine  as  the  material  in  the  experiment. 
The  greater  familiarity  of  the  half  page  and  especially  of 
the  full  page  advertisements  undoubtedly  raised  the 
ratios  for  those  sizes  somewhat  above  the  normal  memory 
value.  For  in  advertising,  as  elsewhere,  there  is  a  nat- 
ural selection  going  on,  so  that  the  full  pages  tend  to 
represent  those  firms  which  have  advertised  successfully 
for  some  little  time.  The  mere  fact  of  familiarity  gives 
to  these  advertisements  all  the  value  to  be  derived 
from  repetition,  either  from  duplicated  advertisements, 
or,  more  probably,  from  varied  advertisements.  We 
shall  see  below  that  variation  in  the  form  of  presentation 
is  a  very  important  principle  in  relation  to  memory  value. 
If  we  accept  Starch's  ^  method  of  allowing  for  famil- 
iarity, we  find  that  the  quarter  page  should  be  allowed 
100  per  cent,  the  half  page  73  per  cent,  the  full  page  63 
per  cent,  and  the  two  page  62  per  cent  of  the  values 
actually  received.  Reducing  the  half  page  and  the  full 
page  values  by  these  amounts  in  the  seven  experiments 
mentioned  above,  the  following  ratios  result : 


Scott  .  ,  , 

Scott  .  .  , 

Starch  ,  , 

Strong  ,  . 

Strong  .  . 

Strong  .  , 

Strong  .  . 

Average 


QUARTEa 


Hau 


I.OO 

1.00 

I.OO 
I.OO 
I.OO 
I.OO 
I.OO 


I.OO 


1.69 

1.84 

1.77 

.81 

1.74 

1. 21 


1.46 


Full 


2.36 
3-So 
3-44 

•71 
2.30 
1.48 
1.52 


2.20 


Taking  the  other  series  of  experiments,  in  which  the 
advertisements  were  selected  to  avoid  undue  familiarity, 

*  Starch,  D.,  "Advertising,"  page  34. 


MEMORY 


23s 


though   the   values   were   undoubtedly   somewhat   af- 
fected by  it,  the  following  set  of  ratios  results : 


Quarter 

Half 

Full 

Stronff 

I.OO 
I.OO 
I.OO 

1. 41 
1.76 
1.74 

2.15 

Adams      .......•• 

2.80 

Adams 

2.3s 

Average 

I.OO 

1.64 

2.43 

A  word  should  be  said  in  explanation  of  the  differences 
which  exist  between  Strong's  results  and  ours.  In  the 
first  place,  our  advertisements  were  possibly  slightly 
more  familiar  than  his.  In  the  second  place,  the  time 
intervals  in  the  two  experiments  were  different.  Strong 
presented  his  duplicated  advertisements  one  month 
apart  and  tested  a  month  later.  In  our  experiment,  the 
successive  presentations  of  the  material  occurred  within 
a  space  of  ten  minutes  and  the  test  followed  immediately 
after.  The  effect  of  this  should  be  to  raise  our  values 
somewhat.^ 

The  problem  of  the  frequency  of  insertion  of  the  ad- 
vertisement is  the  next  one  that  needs  discussion.  Com- 
paratively little  work  has  been  done  on  this  point,  so  the 
facts  are  not  so  definitely  known.  A  summary  of  the 
experiments  which  have  been  performed  will  disclose 
the  available  data. 

Strong's  2  results  show  the  ratios  for  one,  two,  and 
four  presentations  to  be  1. 00;  1.25;  1.62.  Our  results 
with  duplicated  advertisements  give  these  ratios:  i.oo; 
1.49;    2.60.     The  average  of  the  two  is:    i.oo;    1.37; 

»  Strong,  E.  K.,  Psychol.  Rev.,  Vol.  21,  page  147,  footnote. 

"  From  data  now  being  accumulated  we  find  that  shorter  intervals, 
as  one  week,  give  ratios  indicating  a  greater  effect  from  two  or  four 
presentations  than  shown  here." 

2  Ihid.f  page  146. 


i4i 


II 


I 


236     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

2.1 1.  It  will  be  seen  that  these  values  are  somewhat 
lower  than  those  obtained  for  increase  in  size  of  the  ad- 
vertisements. It  seems  to  be  pretty  well  proved,  then, 
that  size  is  a  more  important  factor  from  the  standpoint 
of  memory  than  is  frequency  of  insertion  where  the  re- 
peated advertisements  are  exact  duplicates. 

When  we  consider  the  effect  of  varied  advertisements 
rather  than  duplicates,  we  find  that  repetition  is  a 
greater  factor  than  increase  in  size,  as  the  following 
table  will  show  : 


Quarter  page 
Half  page  . 
Full  page 

Average 


Once 


I.OO 
I.OO 
I.OO 


I.OO 


Twice 


2.88 
2.70 
2.30 


2.63 


4  Times 


S.31 
3.66 

3-17 


4-OS 


These  ratios  are  considerably  above  those  obtained  for 
increase  in  size  of  the  advertisements,  which  were  i  .cx) ; 
1.64;   2.43. 

We  are  also  justified  in  stating  that  duplication  has  a 
much  lower  memory  value  than  variation.  The  following 
table  will  make  this  clear : 


DUPUCATION 

Vauation 

1  appearance 

2  appearances       

4  appearances 

I.OO 

1.49 
2.60 

I.OO 

2.63 
4.05 

This  table  shows  very  strikingly  that  variation  pos- 
sesses a  very  much  greater  memory  value  than  duplica- 
tion. 

There  are  at  least  two  reasons  why  this  should  be  the 


MEMORY 


237 


case.  In  the  first  place,  the  degree  of  attention  is  un- 
doubtedly an  important  factor.  When  we  see^  a  dupli- 
cated advertisement  the  second  time  it  is  relatively  un- 
interesting, consequently  the  second  impression  is  not 
so  great  as  the  first.  But  with  the  variation,  there  is 
always  novelty,  so  that  attention  may  be  at  its  maximum. 

In  the  second  place,  where  duplicates  are  used,  but  one 
type  of  appeal  can  be  successfully  employed.  This  may 
be  for  the  reader  an  uninteresting  one,  consequently  he 
may  neglect  the  advertisement  entirely.  Where  vari- 
ations are  used,  however,  it  is  possible  to  make  as  many 
different  types  of  appeal  as  there  are  variations  in  the 
series.  In  addition  to  producing  greater  attention, 
variation  is  more  likely  to  connect  the  advertisement 
with  the  individual's  series  of  interests,  thus  tending  to 
give  it  a  greater  memory  value. 

The  Memory  Value  of  Right-  and  Left-Jiand  Pages.  — 
It  will  be  recalled  that  in  the  experiment  upon  the  at- 
tention value  of  right-  and  left-hand  pages,  it  was  found 
that  the  right-hand  page  had  a  higher  value  by  a  ratio 
of  100  per  cent  to  65  per  cent.  The  question  then  arose 
concerning  the  memory  value  of  right-  and  left-hand 
pages.  Since,  normally,  different  advertisements  appear 
upon  the  two  pages,  it  is  obviously  unfair  to  compare 
their  memory  value,  for  other  factors  would  probably 
come  in  to  modify  the  results.  To  avoid  this  possibility 
of  error,  the  following  method  was  adopted.  Two 
copies  of  a  popular  magazine  were  obtained,  and  one 
was  left  exactly  as  it  was.  In  the  other,  each  page  in 
the  advertising  section  was  removed  and  then  replaced 
in  such  a  way  that  those  advertisements  which  had 
originally  appeared  upon  a  right-hand  page  were  now 
presented  upon  a  left-hand  page  and  those  which  had 
originally  been  on  the  left-hand  page  now  appeared 
on  the  right-hand  page.  In  like  manner,  those  which 
had  been  on  the  right  side  of  the  page  now  appeared  on 


238     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

the  left  side  of  the  page.  Sixty-eight  students  in  the 
class  in  elementary  psychology  were  experimented  upon. 
Approximately  half  were  given  one  copy  of  the  magazine 
and  the  other  half  were  given  the  other  copy.  They  were 
told  to  look  through  the  advertising  sections  of  the 
magazine  for  fifteen  minutes  and  at  the  end  of  that 
time  were  instructed  to  write  down  all  that  they  could 
remember  concerning  the  advertisements. 

The  credits  received  by  the  different  kinds  and  classes 
of  advertisements  were  grouped  together  and  worked 
out  in  several  different  ways.  The  first  point  which 
received  consideration  was  the  one  already  mentioned, 
viz.,  the  memory  value  of  the  right-  and  left-hand  pages. 
Omitting  the  front  and  back  covers,  inside  and  outside, 
and  a  colored  insert  which  appeared  in  the  middle  of 
the  back  section,  all  the  advertisements  which  appeared 
on  the  right-hand  pages  were  grouped  together  and 
likewise  all  those  which  appeared  on  the  left-hand  pages. 
The  same  advertisement  appeared  in  one  case  upon  the 
right-hand  page,  in  the  other  upon  the  left-hand  page. 
In  this  way,  the  effect  of  the  position  on  memory  could 
be  determined.  Any  incidental  superiority  in  memory 
of  one  group  of  subjects  over  the  other  was  offset  be- 
cause there  were  two  comparisons,  what  was  right-hand 
for  one  group  being  left-hand  page  for  the  other  and  what 
was  left-hand  page  for  one  being  right-hand  for  the 
other.  Because  of  this  fact,  any  differences  in  memory 
ability  canceled  each  other.  The  results  as  worked  out 
gave  the  following  ratios : 


Memory 

Value  or 

Right  Page 

Left  Page 

I.OOO 

•572 

ill 


MEMORY 


239 


This  table  shows  that  the  advertisements  which  ap- 
peared on  a  right-hand  page  were  remembered  almost 
twice  as  well  as  those  which  appeared  on  the  left-hand 
page.  This  figure  is  very  similar  to  the  one  which  was 
obtained  for  the  relative  attention  value  of  the  two  pages. 

Another  point  which  was  determined  was  the  memory 
value  of  the  upper  part  of  the  page  as  opposed  to  the 
lower.  Here  there  is  a  chance  for  certain  errors  to  creep 
in,  but  the  data  are  very  suggestive.  The  results 
showed  that  the  advertisements  which  were  on  the  upper 
half  had  just  twice  the  memory  value  of  those  which 
appeared  on  the  lower  half  of  the  page.  This  result 
again  is  very  similar  to  the  one  on  the  attention  value 
of  the  halves  of  the  page. 

The  next  point  considered  was  the  relative  memory 
value  of  the  inside  edge  of  the  page  as  opposed  to  the 
outside  edge  of  the  page.  In  the  make-up  of  the  two  mag- 
azines, an  advertisement  appearing  on  the  inside  edge  in 
one  would  appear  on  the  outside  edge  in  the  other.  The 
results  showed  that  where  tiie  inside  edge  had  a  memory 
value  of  1 .00,  the  same  advertisement  appearing  on  the 
outside  edge  would  have  a  memory  value  of  approximately 
2.50.  Put  the  other  way  around,  if  the  memory  value  of 
the  outside  edge  is  i  .00,  the  value  of  the  inside  edge  will  be 
.400.  This  difference  was  much  greater  in  the  case  of 
the  smaller  advertisements.  The  eighth-page  adver- 
tisements, for  example,  which  were  along  an  inside  edge 
were  seldom  mentioned  at  all,  but  as  soon  as  they  were 
switched  to  the  outside  edge,  they  would  be  mentioned 

quite  frequently.  .       ,  .  ,   .. 

It  was  found  that  the  size  of  the  type  m  which  it  was 
printed  determmed  the  memorability  of  the  headline. 
In  the  advertisements  in  which  the  caption  was  re- 
membered the  most  frequently,  the  type  was  from  18 
point  to  30  point  in  size.  There  appeared  to  be  no  relation 
between  the  size  of  the  advertisement  and  the  size  of 


240     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 


II 


! 


ii 


the  caption  type  in  order  to  give  it  a  maximum  of  mem- 
orability. 

In  order  that  the  firm  name  should  be  remembered, 
it  was  found  to  be  essential  that  the  name  should  be 
repeated  at  least  twice,  once  in  the  copy  and  once  on 
the  picture  of  the  article  advertised.  Where  a  return 
coupon  was  used,  it  was  found  that  if  the  firm  name  was 
placed  near  the  coupon,  just  to  the  left,  for  example,  the 
name  had  a  high  memory  value. 

Concerning    the   memorability   of   illustrations,    the 
following  points  were  determined  by  the  experiment. 
It  was  found  that  the  advertisements  containing  pic- 
tures or  the  pictures  themselves  had  a  lo  per  cent  higher 
memory  value  when  the  illustration  took  the  form  of  a 
photograph  rather  than  a  drawing.    But  it  was  neces- 
sary for  the  photograph  to  be  related  in  meaning  to  the 
article  advertised,  to  the  heading,  and  to  the  name  of  the 
product.     If  the  picture  was  of  a  person,  the  person  must 
face  either  towards  the  reader,  or  towards  the  reading 
matter  of  the  advertisement,  or  in  some  position  between 
them.     It  was  found  that  if  the  picture  faced  towards  the 
outer  edge  of  the  page,  the  memory  value  was  very  low ; 
whereas  if  it  faced  towards  the  center  of  the  magazine 
the  memory  value  was  on  the  average  increased  fourfold. 
The  effect  of  the  incentive,  either  mechanical  or  in- 
terest, was  determined  by  Strong  in  connection  with  an 
experiment  devised  to  test  the  memory  values  of  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  advertising  sections  of  a  magazine. 
Twenty  advertisements  out  of  the  entire  lot  were  se- 
lected, the  ten  which  had  the  highest  memory  value  and 
the  ten  which  had  the  lowest  memory  value.    These 
were  considered  by  six  business  men  and  three  psychol- 
ogists, who  reported  on  the  type  of  incentive  which  was 
most  prominent  in  each  advertisement.    The   results 
were  then  compared,  and  it  was  found  that  with  the  ten 
best  remembered  the  ratio  of  interest  to  mechanical  in- 


MEMORY 


241 


centives  was  i.oo  to  .27  ;  with  the  ten  least  remembered 
the  corresponding  ratio  was  i.oo  to  .93.  ^ 

This  experiment  indicates  that  the  interest  incentives 
are  much  more  likely  to  give  an  advertisement  a  high 
memory  value  than  the  mechanical  incentives.  It  is 
unfortunate,  however,  that  it  was  impossible  to  make 
any  allowance  for  familiarity,  for  undoubtedly  the  com- 
modities in  the  first  list  are  much  better  known  than 
those  in  the  second,  possibly  enough  so  to  accoimt  for 
the  differences  in  memory  value. 

5.  A  fifth  law  which  may  be  mentioned  is  that  rhythm 
is  an  aid  to  memory.  Any  material  which  is  presented 
in  a  rhythmic  form  is  much  more  likely  to  be  remem- 
bered than  material  which  is  presented  in  a  non-rhythmic 
manner.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  individual  who 
has  had  little  practice  in  learning,  for  Meumann  reports 
that  after  a  considerable  amount  of  practice  in  learning, 
the  effect  of  rhythm  disappears.  The  influence  of  rhythm 
is  very  familiar.  A  catchy  song  will  run  through  our  heads 
for  hours  after  we  have  heard  it.  Limericks  have  a  way 
of  persisting  in  spite  of  our  endeavors  to  get  rid  of  them. 

All  rhythms  are  not  equally  efficient,  however. 

In  an  experiment  performed  at  the  University  of 
Michigan  to  test  the  effect  of  the  different  forms  of 
rhythm,  a  total  of  180  persons  was  tested,  80  men  and 
100  women.  The  material  consisted  of  series  of  9  and 
of  10  digits  which  were  arranged  in  a  purely  haphazard 
order.  The  results  for  a  non-rhythmic  series,  trochaic, 
iambic,  dactylic,  and  anapaestic  series  are  given  below : 


N.R. 

Troc. 

Iamb. 

Dact. 

Anap. 

Men  .    .    . 
Women  .     . 

92.1 
91.8 

91.2 
89.9 

96.9 
94.2 

109.6 
109.4 

108.1 
111.8 

* 


1  Hollingworth,  "Advertising  and  Selling,"  page  129. 


I 


I 


242     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

The  table  indicates  that,  on  the  average,  material 
which  is  presented  in  a  rhythmic  form  is  more  easily 
retained  than  material  which  is  given  in  a  non-rhythmic 
manner.  The  three-part  rhythms  give  a  greater  memory 
value  than  two-part  meters. 

The^  men,  in  general,  are  more  influenced  by  falling 
inflections  and  the  women  by  rising  inflections.  The 
men  are  superior  to  the  women  when  the  material  is 
presented  in  two-part  rhythms ;  but  the  women,  on  the 
average,  are  more  affected  by  three-part  rhythms. 

In  selecting  a  trade  name  or  a  slogan  which  will  be 
easily  remembered,  it  is  well  to  keep  these  points  in  mind 
and  secure  one  which  has  a  natural  rhythm.    This  will 
add  considerably  to  the  likelihood  of  its  being  remembered. 
6.  A  sixth  principle  is  that,  in  order  to  learn  quickly, 
it  is  necessary  to  have  the  will  to  learn.    If  the  indi- 
vidual preserves  a  purely  passive  attitude  towards  the 
naterial  which  is  presented   to  him,   the  learning  is 
slow,  if  it  takes  place  at  all.    If  there  is  a  real  desire  to 
learn  and  an  active  effort  exerted  in  that  direction,  much 
more  can  be  retained  from  an  equal  number  of  repetitions. 
This  is  very  probably  a  special  condition  of  the  influence 
of  purpose  or  attitude  upon  the  direction  of  associations. 
Some  few  months  ago,  the  writer  had  occasion  to  use 
the  squares  of  numbers  from  i  to  35  with  considerable 
frequency.^    Each  number  was  undoubtedly  used   100 
different  times.    A  table  had  been  made  and  the  num- 
bers, together  with  their  squares,  had  been  written  down. 
Whenever  the  square  of   a  number  was  wanted,  the 
table   was   consulted   and   the   number  written   down 
upon  another  piece  of  paper.    After  the  figuring  was 
done,  he  wondered  how  many  of  the  squares  he  could 
remember.     Obviously,    the    squares   of    the    numbers 
from  I  to  13,  15,  20,  21,  25,  30,  and  31  were  known. 
Not  another  one  was  known  immediately  with  cer- 
tainty.   They  could  be  puzzled  out  with  some  effort. 


MEMORY 


243 


He  then  read  over  the  unknown  numbers  until  they 
were  thoroughly  familiar,  counting  the  repetitions  which 
were  necessary  until  all  were  learned.  He  then  pre- 
pared another  table,  containing  the  same  number  of 
squares  as  were  unknown  in  the  first  table  when  the 
learning  process  started,  and  learned  the  second  list. 
The  second  list  required  two  and  a  half  times  the  number 
of  repetitions  of  the  first  after  the  intention  to  learn  was 
present.  The  whole  100  repetitions  which  were  made 
for  the  purpose  of  writing  the  numbers  down  to  obtain 
the  standard  deviation  of  a  series  was  equivalent  in  the 
power  of  forming  associations  to  15  repetitions  made 
with  the  intention  of  learning. 

In  the  first  case,  the  purpose  of  becoming  conscious 
of  the  numbers  was  to  enable  him  to  write  them  down. 
For  that  purpose,  there  was  no  need  to  have  them  per- 
sist in  consciousness  at  all ;  in  fact,  it  would  have  been 
detrimental.  The  hand  was  all  set  for  the  writing 
process,  some  degree  of  cortical  action  was  taking  place 
in  the  hand-motor  region  of  the  brain,  consequently, 
the  nerve  current  went  in  that  direction.  In  the  second 
case,  there  was  no  intention  to  write-,  consequently,  no 
partial  activity  in  the  hand-motor  region  of  the  cortex. 
The  nerve  energy  which  came  in  from  the  stimuli  was 
consequently  used  to  a  greater  extent  in  the  formation 
of  associations. 

7.  Another  law  is  that  if  the  repetitions  are  spread  out 
they  are  more  efficient  than  when  grouped.  Twenty- 
four  repetitions  given  on  one  day  are  very  much  less 
efficient  than  24  repetitions  occurring  one  each  day  for 
24  days.  This  is  due  to  the  so-called  perseveration  tend- 
ency, an  application  of  the  physical  principle  of  inertia 
to  the  nervous  system.  When  a  nerve  current  arrives 
at  the  cortical  cells,  those  cells  do  not  act  immediately. 
There  is  a  certain  latent  period  before  any  action  re- 
sults.   In  the  same  way,  when  the  stimulus  ceases,  the 


244     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 


MEMORY 


245 


III 
1 


cells  continue  active  for  some  little  time  afterwards. 
This  gradual  dying-out  process  aids  materially  in  the 
formation  of  associations. 

In  addition  to  the  laws  of  learning,  certain  of  the  laws 
of  forgetting  are  important  for  the  advertiser,  because 
forgetting  is  one  of  the  main  principles  for  testing  the 
strength  of  any  association  or  memory.  Those  associ- 
ations which  are  weakest  disappear  or  are  forgotten  first. 
The  laws  of  forgetting  have  been  determined  largely  by 
the  use  of  nonsense  materials,  though  in  certain  ex- 
periments sense  material  has  been  used. 

I.  The  first  law  of  forgetting  is  that  the  rate  of  for- 
getting is  very  rapid  at  first,  then  gradually  decreases. 
Two  experiments  will  be  quoted.  The  first,  performed 
by  Ebbinghaus  on  nonsense  syllables,  was  carried  on 
as  follows.  A  series  of  13  nonsense  syllables  was  learned 
to  such  an  extent  that  it  could  be  said  through  once 
correctly.  After  an  interval,  20  minutes,  i  hour,  8.8 
hours,  24  hours,  and  so  on,  the  series  was  relearned,  and 
the  amount  of  time  saved  in  relearning  was  taken  as  a 
measure  of  the  amount  forgotten.  Radossawljewitsch, 
who  required  that  the  syllables  should  be  learned  so  that 
the  series  could  be  said  through  twice  without  mistake 
before  it  be  considered  learned,  thus  making  stronger 
original  associations,  obtained  percentages  which  show 
a  slower  rate  of  forgetting  for  the  shorter  times.  He 
also  performed  experiments  on  the  retention  of  poetry. 
The  results  of  these  two  investigations  are  given  on  the 
next  page. 

In  the  second  experiment,  the  poor  retention  after 
eight  hours  was  thought  to  be  due  to  fatigue  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  day.  The  main  difference,  however,  is 
the  greater  amount  retained  after  the  passage  of  rela- 
tively short  times.  This  possibly  is  due  to  the  effect 
of  "overlearning,"  the  more  than  adequate  formation 
of  association  pathways.    One  other  point  which  should 


Interval 

Ebbinghaus 

Radossawljewitsch 

Nonsense  Syl. 

Nonsense  Syl. 

Poetry 

5  minutes  . 
20  minutes  . 

1  hour  .     . 
8  hours .    . 
8.8  hours 

24  hours 

2  days  . 

6  days  . 
14  days  . 

30  days  . 

31  days  . 
120  days  . 

58 
44 

36 

34 
28 

25 

21 

98 
89 
71 
47 

68 
61 

49 
41 
20 

3 

100 
96 
78 
S8 

79 

67 

42 

30 
24 

? 

be  mentioned  is  the  relatively  greater  amount  of  re- 
tention of  sense  material. 

An  experiment  performed  by  Strong,^  in  which  a  some- 
what different  method  was  employed,  yielded  results 
very  similar  to  those  which  have  already  been  mentioned. 
The  curves  showing  the  results  of  the  four  investigations 

are  given  below,  Fig.  XVI. 

To  reach  the  maximum  of  effectiveness,  any  senes  of 
appeals  ought  to  be  distributed  in  accordance  with  the 
curve  of  forgetting  rather  than  following  any  regular 
intervals  of  time.  This  is  true  not  only  of  advertise- 
ments as  they  appear  in  newspapers,  magazmes,  and 
the  like,  but  would  hold  also  for  follow-up  letters.  In- 
stead of  presenting  the  appeals,  whatever  their  nature, 
a  week  apart,  or  a  fortnight  apart,  or  a  month  apart, 
very  much  shorter  initial  periods  should  be  used. 

Another  element  of  some  importance  in  any  study  of 
memory  is  the  relative  memorability  of  different  kinds 
of  objects.  It  is  important  not  only  from  the  stand- 
point of  advertising,  but  from  the  legal  standpoint  as 

1  Strong,  Psy.  Rev.,  Vol.  20,  pages  339-372- 


246     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

well  in  determining  the  reliability  of  witnesses.  Many 
experiments  have  been  carried  on  to  test  this  point  and, 
though  there  are  certain  disagreements,  certain  common 
elements  stand  out  beyond  doubt.  "  In  general,  persons 
and  their  acts,  things  and  spatial  relations  are  reported 


100- 


'     t  i 


»EBBINQHAU8 


— — — — — ^  RADOSSAWUEWIT8CH   NON-SENSE  SYLLABLES 
•—- — — —  "  POETRY 

■■  ■  STRONG 


Fig.  XVI.  — These  curves  show  the  results  of  four  experiments  on  the  rate  of 
forgetting.  The  amount  retained  is  given  in  percentages  on  the  p)erpen- 
dicular  line,  the  elapsed  time  on  the  horizontal. 

with  a  good  deal  of  accuracy,  but  incidental  features, 
especially  the  qualities  of  objects  and  their  colors,  are  not 
accurately  reported."  ^ 

Compare  this  statement  with  the  results    obtained 
by  DaUenbach^  upon  memory  for  geometrical  figures. 

*  Cdvin,  "The  Learning  Process,"  page  i86. 

*  Dallenbach,  Psy.  Rev.^  Vol.  20,  pages  334-335. 


MEMORY  247 

He  found  the  following  degrees  of  accuracy  with  refer- 
ence to  the  different  possibilities : 

Shap>e 92.9 

Size 86.5 

Position 64.4 

Color 56.2 

The  colors  showed  an  interesting  variation  among 
themselves,  yellow  being  the  most  accurately  recalled. 
The  order  for  the  colors,  together  with  their  accuracy  of 
recall,  is  given  in  the  following  table : 

Yellow .  92.7 

Red 91-7 

Violet 89.1 

Blue       86.2 

Light  green 84.2 

Orange 82.1 

Blue-green       74.3 

SUMMARY 

Many  scattered  and  isolated  facts  concerning  memory 
have  been  brought  out  which  have  some  application  to 
advertising.  In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  three  things 
concerning  the  objects  used  in  the  advertisement  should 
be  kept  in  mind.  In  the  first  place,  not  all  facts  or 
objects  have  an  equal  chance  of  being  remembered. 
Consequently,  those  things  which  have  a  relatively  high 
memory  value  should  be  employed.  In  the  second 
place,  the  way  in  which  the  object  is  experienced  de- 
termines its  memorability,  for  the  way  in  which  it  is 
presented  determines  the  t3T)e  of  change  which  is  made 
in  the  nervous  system.  Certain  ways  of  presenting  the 
same  material,  consequently,  are  much  more  effective 
than  certain  other  ways.  Repeating  the  same  adver- 
tisement, time  after  time,  will  give  increased  memory 
value ;  increasing  the  size  of  the  advertisement  will  still 
further  improve  the  memory  value ;  and  presenting  the 


248     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

same  appeal  in  different  ways  on  successive  occasions  is 
still  more  effective.  A  rhythmic  form  of  presentation  is 
preferable  to  one  which  is  non-rhythmic.  In  the  third 
place,  any  fact  which  is  once  known  will,  in  course  of 
time,  be  forgotten.  It  is  therefore  necessary  that  the 
pubHc  be  reminded  from  time  to  time. 


CHAPTER  XIII 


The  Appearance  of  Advertisements 

In  the  foregoing  discussions,  emphasis  has  been  laid 
throughout  on  the  various  ways  of  giving  information 
in  such  a  manner  that  it  will  be  retained.  This  is  known 
technically  as  the  cognitive  or  knowing  side  of  conscious- 
ness. In  addition,  it  is  necessary  to  discuss  the  feeling 
or  emotional  side  of  our  mental  life  as  this  is  related  to 
advertising.  It  must  be  done  for  three  reasons :  first, 
because  the  pleasantness  or  unpleasantness  of  the  ad- 
vertisement becomes  linked  by  association  with  the 
commodity  which  is  advertised;  secondly,  because 
there  is  apparently  some  relation  between  the  pleasant- 
ness of  a  stimulus  and  favorable  action  towards  the 
stimvdus ;  and,  thirdly,  because  there  is  a  definite  relation 
between  the  pleasantness  of  a  stimulus  and  the  length 
of  time  it  will  hold  attention.  It  is  not  necessary  at 
this  point  to  go  into  the  cause  and  effect  relations 
existing  between  feeling  and  action.  It  is  enough  to 
show  that  there  apparently  is  some  relation. 

Any  sensation  may  be  pleasant,  unpleasant,  or  in- 
different. Sweet  is  usually  pleasant,  though  just  after 
Christmas  it  is  quite  generally  impleasant,  and  at  other 
times  may  be  indifferent.  The  complex  made  up  of  a 
sensation  and  pleasantness  is  called  a  feeling.  Like- 
wise a  sensation  which  is  unpleasant  is  called  a  feeling. 
An  indifferent  sensation  is  not  a  feeling  at  all,  but  just 
a  sensation.  Since  pleasantness  and  unpleasantness 
are  independent  variables  which  may  attach  to  any 

249 


hi 


II 


250     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

sensation,  it  is  possible  to  abstract  them  from  the  total 
experience.  This  abstraction,  which  refers  merely  to 
the  pleasantness  or  impleasantness  of  a  sensation,  is 
called  affection  or  affective  tone.  The  sensation  can 
exist  without  the  affective  tone,  but  the  affective  tone 
cannot  exist  without  the  sensation.  The  sensation  is  a 
relatively  permanent  affair,  whereas  the  affection  is 
constantly  fluctuating. 

Since  the  affection  depends  in  some  way  upon  the 
sensation,  it  may  be  said  that  the  affection  varies  with 
the  attributes  of  the  sensation.  It  will  be  remembered 
that  there  are  four  attributes  of  sensation,  quality, 
intensity,  extensity,  and  duration.  Since  advertising 
is  so  largely  a  visual  matter,  depending  primarily  upon 
color,  brightness,  and  form,  these  factors  will  be  taken 
up  in  connection  with  the  attributes  of  the  sensations. 

In  the  first  place,  it  may  be  said  that  the  pleasantness 
of  a  color  varies  with  the  quality  or  color  tone.  A  very 
large  amount  of  experimental  work  has  been  done  upon 
this  point,  and  the  results  are  quite  chaotic,  showing  that 
the  liking  for  a  color  depends  upon  a  very  great  many 
different  factors,  such  as  sex,  age,  nationality,  training, 
the  background  upon  which  the  color  is  shown,  the  size 
of  the  color,  the  shape,  the  area,  and  the  period  of  time 
for  which  it  is  seen.  Another  difficulty  in  the  way  of 
investigating  color  preference  is  the  lack  of  properly 
standardized  color  names. 

Possibly  the  most  thorough  study  of  color  preference 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  number  of  persons  investi- 
gated was  made  by  Jastrow  ^  at  the  World's  Fair  in 
Chicago  in  1893,  in  which  he  obtained  results  from 
4500  individuals,  three  fifths  of  whom  were  men  and  the 
remainder  women.  The  colors  used  were  of  the  Prang 
series  and  were  rectangular  in  shape.  The  size,  however, 
is  not  given,  nor  is  the  background  mentioned.    The 

*  Jastrow,  Popular  Science  Monthly^  1897,  page  361  ff. 


PI 


THE  APPEARANCE  OF  ADVERTISEMENTS    251 


following  colors  were  used:  red,  red-orange,  orange, 
orange-yellow,  yellow,  yellow-green,  green,  blue-green, 
blue,  blue-violet,  violet,  and  violet-red,  together  with 
the  tint  of  each.  As  a  result  of  the  experiment,  Jastrow 
found  that  the  first  place  for  single  colors  was  held  by 
blue.  Second,  and  a  rather  poor  second  at  that,  was  red. 
Following  these  came  in  order  Ught  blue,  blue-violet, 
red-violet,  and  light  red-violet.  The  colors  rather  than 
the  tints  were  quite  generally  chosen.  Also,  there  was 
an  unmistakable  tendency  to  prefer  the  primary  colors 
rather  than  the  transitional  ones. 

Miss  Washburn^  studied  the  color  preference  of  35 
Vassar  students  by  means  of  colors  2.9  cm.  square  pre- 
sented on  a  white  background.  Colors  of  the  Bradley 
series  were  used.  Her  results  are  as  follows,  for  the 
saturated  colors : 

Color  Value 

Red 5.6 

Green-blue 5«3 

Orange-red 4-5 

Violet .4-4 

Orange-yellow  &  Blue-violet 4-o 

Violet-blue  &  Blue 3-8 

Red-violet 3-6 

Yellow-orange  &  Blue-green 3-4 

YeUow 3-3 

Red- violet  &  Green 3.0 

Orange  &  Yellow-green 2.6 

Green-yellow 2.1 

The  most  pleasing  color  was  given  a  value  of  seven, 
the  least  pleasing  a  value  of  one,  and  a  color  which  was 
indifferent  was  credited  with  four  points.  Pure  red 
proved  to  be  the  most  pleasing  saturated  color  for  the 
women,  with  greenish-blue  next.  Pure  blue  comes  fairly 
low  in  the  series.  Yellow,  green,  and  yellowish-greens 
were  disliked. 

1  Washburn,  Amer.  Journ.  oj  Psychol..,  Vol.  22,  page  114. 


II 


ii 


252     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

In  Miss  Washburn's  experiment  tints  and  shades 
were  also  used.  She  found  that  the  affective  value  of 
tints  was  the  highest,  with  an  average  of  4.7  ;  the  shades 
coming  second,  with  an  average  of  4.1 ;  while  the  satu- 
rated colors  were  the  lowest,  with  an  average  of  3.6. 
Blue  was  the  pleasantest  light  tint  and  yellowish-green 
was  the  pleasantest  dark  shade,  with  blue  coming  next. 

An  experiment  performed  upon  30  students  at  the 
University  of  Michigan,  in  which  squares  of  red,  orange, 
yellow,  green,  blue,  and  violet  of  the  Bradley  series 
1.5  inches  on  a  side  were  shown  on  a  white  backgroimd, 
resulted  in  the  following  order  of  merit : 

Color  PosmoN 

Red       3 

Orange 4 

Yellow       5.5 

Green         2 

Blue I 

Violet 5.5 

Several  experiments  have  been  made  with  the  colors 
displayed  on  a  black  background.  Wissler  ^  used  rec- 
tangles of  color,  5X3  cm.,  displayed  on  a  black  back- 
ground.    His  results,  in  percentages,  are  given : 


COUJE 


Red   . 

Orange 

Yellow 

Green 

Blue  . 

Violet 

White 


Mkn 

Woi 

Like 

Dislike 

Like 

% 

% 

% 

22 

7 

42 

5 

25 

8 

3 

32 

5 

7 

IS 

9 

42 

13 

19 

>9 

8 

19 

3 

I 

8 

Dislike 


% 
8 

31 
8 

21 
23 

9 
o 


*  Wissler,  Psychol.  Rev.  Mon.  Supple..,  Vol.  3,  17. 


THE  APPEARANCE  OF  ADVERTISEMENTS    253 

Red,  blue,  and  violet  are  the  colors  which  have  the 
highest  preference  values  under  these  conditions. 

In  the  experiment  referred  to  above  as  having  been 
done  at  the  University  of  Michigan,  the  following  order 
of  merit  was  obtained  on  the  black  background. 

Cow)*  Position 

Red       S 

Orange 2 

Yellow       I 

Green 4 

Blue 3 

Violet 6 

These  results  indicate  that  yellow,  orange,  and  blue 
are  the  most  satisfactory  colors  to  use  on  a  black  back- 
ground. 

Enough  evidence  has  been  given  to  show  the  chaotic 
condition  of  the  work  upon  color  preference.  An  at- 
tempt at  harmonization  is  beyond  the  province  of  this 
work.  It  seems  probable,  however,  that  as  a  general 
rule,  it  is  possible  to  say  that  blue  and  red^  are  the 
two  colors  which  are  accepted  by  the  majority  as 
being  the  most  pleasing  under  average  conditions. 
So  many  factors  come  in  to  effect  the  pleasingness 
of  the  colors,  however,  that  this  is  about  as  much  as 
can  be  said.     The  influence  of  these  factors  will  now 

be  discussed. 

I.  Efect  of  Background.  — ^mcQ  in  the  experiments 
quoted  above  different  subjects  were  used  in  the  dif- 
ferent investigations,  it  is  unfair  to  compare  the  results 
of  one  experiment  with  those  of  another.  In  the  ex- 
periment performed  at  the  University  of  Michigan  the 
same  persons  were  used  throughout,  so  a  comparison 
of  their  results  is  possible.  Three  backgrounds  were 
used,  black,  white,  and  middle  gray,  a  gray  which  was 
approximately  halfway  between  the  black  and  the 
white.    The  order  of  merit  for  the  different  colors  on 


i 


\ 


254     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

the  three  backgrounds  is  presented  in  the  accompanying 
table: 


COLOK 

White 

Gray 

Black 

Red 

5 

s 

s 

Orange 

4 

6 

a 

YeUow   ...... 

55 

4 

I 

Green 

2 

3 

4 

Blue 

I 

2 

S 
6 

Violet 

55 

I 

These  results  show  that  the  background  upon  which 
the  color  is  displayed  has  a  considerable  effect  upon  the 
affective  tone  of  the  color.  We  have  to  deal  here  with 
the  question  of  color  harmony  rather  than  with  the 
question  of  color  preference.  The  results  of  the  test 
go  to  show  that  if  a  small  color  is  displayed  on  a  large 
white  background,  blue  is  the  most  pleasing,  with  green 
and  red  following,  and  that  the  colors  which  produce 
the  worst  impression  are  yellow  and  violet.  On  the 
gray  background,  the  order  of  preference  is  practically 
the  spectral  order,  starting  with  the  violet.  On  the 
black  background,  yellow  is  the  favorite,  followed  by 
orange  and  then  by  blue.  Violet  and  red  are  the  least 
pleasant. 

2.  Sex  Differences,  —  It  seems  to  hold  in  the  ma- 
jority of  tests  which  have  been  made  that  the  mascuUne 
tendency  is  to  prefer  blue  for  the  first  choice  and  red  for 
the  second,  whereas  the  women  place  red  first  and  blue 
second.  This  was  the  result  obtained  by  Jastrow,  and 
the  results  of  Miss  Washburn's  experiments  in  which 
all  of  the  subjects  were  women  showed  red  to  have  the 
first  place  for  the  saturated  colors.  The  results  of  the 
test  carried  on  at  the  University  of  Michigan  will  be 
given  for  purposes  of  comparison. 


THE   APPEARANCE  OF  ADVERTISEMENTS    255 


Background 

Average 

Color 

White 

Gray 

Black 

Red   .     .     . 

Orange  .     . 
Yellow    .     . 
Green     .     . 
Blue       .     . 
Violet     .    . 

Men 

2.75 

3-33 
5.00 

3-42 

2.75 

3-75 

Women 

3.61 
4.67 

3.89 
2.44 
1.67 

4.72 

Men 

358 
3.33 
3-25 
3-75 
3-75 
3-42 

Women 
3.78 
4.28 

3-83 
3.22 

2.94 

2.94 

Men 

3-25 
3.58 
2.83 

3-83 
3.58 
4.00 

Women 
4.28 

2.83 
2.67 

3-33 
3-44 
4.44 

Men 

3.20 

3-42 

3-70 
3.66 

3-36 
3.72 

Women 
3-90 
3-93 
3-46 
3.00 
2.68 

4.0s 

These  results  show  the  following  average  order  of 
preference  for  the  two  sexes : 


Feicale 


Red      . 

Orange 
Yellow 
Green  . 
Blue     . 
Violet  . 


4 
5 

3 

2 
I 
6 


These  results  because  they  are  derived  from  so  few 
subjects  are  not  to  be  taken  too  seriously.  They  are 
suggestive  rather  than  final. 

Another  sex  difference  which  appears  from  the  pre- 
ceding tables  is  that  women  are  surer  of  their  color  pref- 
erence than  the  men.  The  extreme  range  of  averages 
for  the  men  is  from  3.20  to  3.72,  a  difference  of  only 
0.52.  The  women's  range  is  from  2.68  to  4.05,  a  differ- 
ence of  1.37,  almost  three  times  that  of  the  men. 

A  still  further  sex  difference  which  was  brought  out 
by  Jastrow  and  by  other  investigators  as  well  is  that 
women  generally  prefer  the  tints  of  colors,  whereas  men 
prefer  either  the  saturated  colors  or  the  shades. 


in 


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til 


i 


256     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

3.  Age  Differences,  —  Tests  which  have  been  made 
on  very  young  children  indicate  that  the  brightest 
color  is  the  one  which  is  first  reached  for.  The  color 
tone  is  a  matter  of  relative  indifference ;  the  brightness 
of  the  color  is  the  important  consideration.  Jastrow, 
whose  4500  subjects  ranged  from  the  ages  of  six  or 
eight  to  over  seventy,  found  that  blue  was  the  least  se- 
lected by  the  youngest  group  made  up  of  those  eighteen 
years  of  age  or  under,  was  on  about  an  equal  footing  with 
the  other  colors  with  individuals  between  eighteen  and 
forty-one,  and  was  decidedly  preferred  by  those  who  were 
past  forty-one.  The  lighter  red  was  particularly  pre- 
ferred by  those  under  eighteen  years  of  age. 

Winch,  who  investigated  the  color  preference  of  2000 
school  children  in  London,  found  the  following  order 
for  both  boys  and  girls :  blue ;  red ;  then  yellow,  which 
was  placed  lower  as  age  and  intelligence  increased; 
green,  which  rose  higher  with  increasing  age  and  intelli- 
gence ;  white,  and  finally  black. 

In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  in  youth  the  preference 
is  for  colors  at  or  near  the  red  end  of  the  spectrum  and 
that  with  advancing  age  the  preference  tends  to  swing 
towards  the  blue  end  of  the  spectrum. 

4.  Culture  Differences.  —  Grant  Allen,  by  means  of 
questions  put  to  returned  missionaries,  found  that  the 
colors  were  preferred  in  the  following  order  by  savages : 

1.  Red 

2.  Yellow 

3.  Orange 

4.  Blue 

5.  Green 

This  order  correlates  fairly  definitely  with  the  order 
determined  by  the  color  words  in  the  vocabularies  of 
tribes  inhabiting  certain  of  the  islands  in  the  Pacific. 
Neighboring  islands  present  queer  anomalies,  for  in 
one  there  are  found  only  the  words  for  red  and  orange, 


THE  APPEARANCE  OF  ADVERTISEMENTS    257 


whereas  in  another  only  a  few  miles  distant,  the  natives 
have  names  for  red,  orange,  and  yellow. 

Havelock  Ellis,^  in  a  comparative  study  of  literature, 
has  suggested  that  before  the  Christian  era,  red  and 
yellow  in  their  various  shades  were  the  colors  most  pre- 
ferred. After  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  yellow 
fell  into  disrepute,  and  blue  was  substituted  for  it  in 
the  popular  taste.  The  liking  for  green  is  of  compar- 
atively recent  date,  since  the  use  of  that  color  word 
does  not  appear  extensively  in  literature  until  political 
exigencies  had  forced  the  Englishmen  to  forsake  the 
corruption  of  court  life  and  betake  themselves  to  the 
country,  where  the  pleasantness  of  the  Hfe  became  as- 
sociated with  the  predominant  color  of  the  vegetation, 
green. 

Taking  all  of  the  evidence  into  account,  it  seems 
probable  that  savages,  backward  or  uneducated  races 
and  people  tend  to  prefer  the  red  end  of  the  spectrum 
and  to  regard  with  less  favor  the  colors  towards  the  blue 
end. 

5.  Effect  of  the  Size  of  the  Color.  —  To  test  this  point, 
the  investigators  ^  compared  the  affective  value  of  two 
sets  of  cards  with  23  subjects,  all  of  whom  were  women. 
Two  sets  of  cards  were  prepared,  one  being  5  cm.  square, 
the  other  25  cm.  square.  Saturated  red,  orange,  yellow, 
green,  blue,  and  violet,  together  with  the  Ughter  tint 
and  the  darker  shade  of  each,  were  used.  The  cards 
were  suspended  in  mid-air  about  5  feet  from  a  gray  wall. 
This  was  done  to  lessen  the  effect  of  the  background. 
It  was  found  that  of  the  saturated  colors,  red  was  pre- 
ferred with  the  larger  area,  and  that  all  of  the  other 
colors  were  preferred  in  the  smaller  area.    With  tints, 

»"The  Psychology  of  Red,"  Pop.  Set.  Mo.,  S7,  page  365.  "The 
Psychology  of  Yellow,"  Pop.  Set.  Mo.,  68,  page  463.  "The  Color  Sense 
in  Literature,"  Contemp.  Rev.,  1896,  pages  714  jBf. 

*  Clark,  Goodell,  and  Washburn,  Am.  Jour,  of  Psychol.,  22,  pages  578- 

579- 

8 


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258     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

the  larger  area  was  slightly  preferred ;  and  with  shades, 
the  larger  area  was  also  preferred,  the  preference  being 
least  in  the  case  of  green  and  violet.  The  moral  is,  that 
the  observer  can  be  pleased  by  large  areas  where  the 
color  tone  is  reduced  in  saturation,  but  where  the  color 
is  really  condensed  as  it  is  in  the  case  of  a  saturated 
color,  large  areas  are  likely  to  become  distressing,  to  say 
nothing  of  overpowering. 

6.  Efect  of  the  Duration  of  the  Stimulus,  —  In  the 
experiment  ^  by  means  of  which  this  point  was  tested, 
squares  of  color,  2.9  cm.  X  2.9  cm.,  were  shown  to 
14  female  subjects.  The  same  colors  were  used  as  in 
the  preceding  test.  The  subjects  were  told  to  look 
steadily  at  the  color  for  a  period  of  one  minute,  record- 
ing any  changes  of  affective  tone  which  were  observed 
during  that  interval.  It  was  found  that  some  fluctua- 
tion of  the  affective  tone  usually  did  occur.  These 
changes  were  of  two  sorts :  those  resulting  from  changes 
in  the  color  itself  which  were  brought  about  by  adapta- 
tion, thus  making  the  color  appear  to  be  less  pure ;  and 
secondly,  changes  owing  to  associations  which  arose  in 
connection  with  the  color.  It  was  found  that  changes 
owing  to  the  first  cause  were  much  more  numerous  in 
the  case  of  the  saturated  colors  than  with  the  shades 
or  tints.  Numerically,  the  saturated  colors  suffered 
change  because  of  adaptation  133  times,  the  shades 
underwent  a  corresponding  change  93  times,  and  the 
tints  70.  Changes  of  the  second  sort,  due  to  purely 
mental  causes,  changed  the  affective  tone  of  the  tints 
most,  the  shades  next,  and  the  saturated  colors  least  of 
all,  the  numerical  values  being  70, 59,  and  53  respectively. 
In  general,  it  was  found  that  changes  due  to  mental 
causes,  such  as  the  arousal  of  associated  ideas,  tended  to 
raise  the  affective  tone  of  the  color,  while  changes  of  the 
opposite  sort,  due  to  changes  in  the  color  itself,  tended 

*  Crawford  and  Washburn,  Am.  Jour,  of  Psychol. ^  22,  pages  579-582. 


THE  APPEARANCE  OF  ADVERTISEMENTS     259 

to  decrease  the  affective  value.  It  was  found  that  for 
saturated  colors,  associations  had  httle  influence.  What 
there  was  proved  to  be  of  a  favorable  nature.  Adapta- 
tion was  favorable  to  green,  blue,  and  violet,  and  un- 
favorable to  red  and  yellow.  With  the  shades,  changes 
due  to  mental  causes  had  a  favorable  effect  on  red, 
orange,  green,  and  violet,  but  had  little  effect  upon  blue 
or  yellow.  With  tints,  associations  were  favorable 
without  exception,  and  adaptation  was  on  the  whole 
unfavorable. 

The  reasons  for  preferring  one  color  to  another  have 
been  mentioned  by  BuUough.^  He  found  that  his  ob- 
servers fell  into  four  types.  The  first  he  called  the 
objective.  It  was  composed  of  those  who  based  their 
aesthetic  judgment  upon  a  physical  characteristic  of 
the  color,  such  as  its  saturation,  brightness,  delicacy,  or 
poorness  of  color.  The  second  type  was  the  associative, 
for  whom  the  color  called  up  thoughts  of  flowers,  sun- 
sets, trees,  the  sea,  and  the  like.  The  third  type  was  the 
physiological,  including  those  who  reacted  to  the  color 
in  terms  of  its  warmth,  restfuhiess,  coohiess,  or  softness. 
The  fourth  class  was  composed  of  those  who  read  charac- 
ter into  the  colors,  considering  them  as  insipid,  treach- 
erous, or  jovial. 

In  connection  with  the  last  point,  it  has  been  found 
that  for  many  persons  each  color  has  a  distinct  character. 
These  have  been  brought  out  in  some  detail  by  Bullough. 

Red.  —  ''The  character  of  a  red  or  a  tone  tinged  with 
red  is  usually  of  a  sympathetic,  affectionate  kind;  it 
appears  to  come  to  you  with  openness  and  frankness. 
Red  is  by  far  the  most  active  color,  exhibiting  degrees 
of  energy  which  are  almost  overwhehning ;  it  is  gushing. 
It  is  impressive  by  reason  of  its  irresistible  strength  and 
power." 

Yellow.  —  "Yellow  has  a  temperament  utterly  unlike 

1  Bullough,  British  Journal  oj  Psychology,  2,  page  407. 


S 


I  ^1 


[  *^" 


260     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

red.  Its  essence  is  cheerfulness  and  lightness  of  heart. 
It  is  ahnost  fidgety  compared  with  the  deep  elemental 
restlessness  of  red,  and  sparkling  with  life  compared  to 
the  contemplative  seriousness  of  blue.  There  is  little 
of  the  massive  strength  of  red,  though  a  good  deal  of 
its  sympathetic  brightness,  and  none  of  the  taciturn 
reserve  of  blue.  Yellow  is  happiness,  sunshine,  and 
fun;  it  is  ahnost  impossible  to  take  it  seriously;  even 
when  it  tries  to  appear  serious  and  deepens  into  gold, 
it  retains  too  much  of  its  glorious  radiance  to  be  really 
grand  and  majestic.  It  may  be  splendid,  brilliant, 
but  its  splendor  is  after  all  merely  on  the  surface  and 
a  faint  suspicion  of  shallowness  is  very  apt  to  linger  in 

the  mind."  .  ,, 

Orange.  — '' Combined  with  red  mto  orange,  yellow 
loses  some  of  its  light  spontaneousness  by  contact  with 
the  greater  power  of  red,  but  robs  the  red  of  a  part  of 
its  unbridled  impetuousness ;  even  the  natural  frank- 
ness of  the  red  seems  to  suffer  to  some  extent  by  imxture 
with  yellow.  If  this  combination  produces  one  of  the 
most  magnificently  brilliant  tones,  of  ahnost  unrivalled 
intensity,  warmth,  and  Hfe,  yet  the  fusion  of  the  tem- 
peramental differences  is  apt  to  produce  a  note  of  discord, 
which  certainly  makes  the  color  all  the  more  mterestmg 
by  increasmg  the  complexity  of  its  temperament,  yet 
seems  to  suggest  to  many  persons  a  kind  of  duphcity, 
even  of  treachery  or  stealthiness.  On  the  whole,  orange 
is  not  an  intimate  color ;  its  attraction  Hes  more  in  its 
magnificence  than  in  its  more  inward  qualities." 

Qreen.  —  "  Green  possesses  solidity  of  character,  some- 
times even  to  the  verge  of  pedantry  and  the  bourgeois. 
As  distinguished  from  red,  its  fundamental  quahty  is 
restfuhiess ;  as  opposed  to  blue,  it  is  expansive  and 
jovial  instead  of  cold  and  reserved.  It  is  essenUally 
healthy  without  a  bit  of  morbidness.  At  the  same  time, 
it  is  one  of  the  most  fluctuating  and  variable  colors 


THE  APPEARANCE   OF  ADVERTISEMENTS     261 

from  the  point  of  view  of  the  character  aspect,  which 
seems  to  be  due  to  the  fact  that  a  pure  green  is  very 
rarely  met  with,  and  that  the  faintest  admixture  of  yellow 
or  blue  influences  its  tone  in  a  much  higher  degree  than 
that  of  other  colors.  The  various  degrees  of  luminosity 
also  affect  its  temperament  much  more  than  they  do 
in  other  tones.  In  an  absolutely  pure,  saturated  green, 
as  in  the  spectrum,  there  is  hardly  any  trace  of  pedantry 
left;  even  its  solidity  and  placidness  are  very  largely 
lost  in  the  luminous  richness  of  its  tone.  Such  a  green 
may  show  a  degree  of  refinement  which  is  as  a  rule  not 
characteristic  of  greens  as  a  class.  As  a  whole  they  are 
healthy,  expansive,  good-natured,  and  very  reposeful. 
Mixed  with  yellow,  however  little,  green  is  apt  to  lose 
its  soundness  of  character  and  easily  appears  sickly, 
unreHable,  and  treacherous.  The  addition  of  some  blue 
at  once  adds  some  reserve  and  refinement  to  its  healthy- 
mindedness;  it  checks  its  joviality,  increases  its  re- 
flectiveness, and  strengthens  its  purpose." 

Bltie.  —  "Blues  are  reserved,  even  unaccessible  of 
temperament,  somewhat  like  individuals  described  as 
difficult  to  know.  This  temperament  is  by  no  means 
repellent;  on  the  contrary,  it  has  an  attraction  of  its 
own,  by  the  promise  of  more  though tfulness  and  greater 
depth  than  red  in  its  expressiveness  seems  to  offer. 
Blue  tends  to  contemplation  and  reflection.  In  blue 
there  is  always  some  measure  of  coldness  and  distant 
state.  It  has  something  monumental  in  its  dignified 
repose  and  its  peculiar  spaciousness." 

Purples.  —  "Their  fascination  lies  largely  in  their 
strange  combination  of  temperamental  contrasts  pe- 
culiar to  the  components,  red  and  blue.  Still  more  than 
orange,  purple  is  a  self-contradiction,  but  without  the 
element  of  duplicity  or  untrustworthiness  inherent  in 
compounds  of  yellow.  This  internal  antagonism  places 
it  in  a  very  marked  contrast  to  green,  and  purples  in- 


41  ill 


262     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

cKne,  in  opposition  to  green  and  its  healthy-mindedness, 
to  some  degree  of  morbidness  or  at  least  sadness  and 
melancholy.  This  note  is  especially  pronounced  in  blue- 
purples,  when  the  predominance  of  blue  tends  to  lower 
the  luminosity  and  accentuate  the  element  of  pensive- 
ness,  self -contemplation,  and  severity.  If  the  luminosity 
is  very  high,  the  thinness  of  the  tone  imparts  to  the  color 
a  particularly  marked  morbid  sentimentality,  though 
always  with  the  quaHty  of  almost  fastidious  refinement 
and  feminine  delicacy.  A  pale  blue-purple  is  a  dis- 
tinctly mystic  color ;  a  fully  saturated  blue-purple  pos- 
sesses a  degree  of  stateliness  and  depth,  which,  combined 
with  the  somewhat  abnormal,  many-faceted  tempera- 
ment, produces  the  impression  of  a  mysterious,  not 
easily  fathomed  personality.  The  red-purple  exhibits 
the  same  complexities  of  character,  but  the  prevalence 
of  the  red  element  gives  it  considerably  more  frankness, 
impulsiveness,  and  sympathy.  Red-purple  is,  perhaps, 
from  this  point  of  view,  the  most  fascinating  of  all  colors : 
especially  if  fully  saturated,  there  is  imlimited  strength 
in  it,  not  the  irresistible  dash  of  red,  but  an  energy  con- 
trolled and  spirit  realized  by  the  thoughtfulness  and 
sensibihty  of  the  blue ;  there  is  all  the  affectionate  im- 
petuosity of  the  one,  coupled  with  the  reserved  inward- 
ness of  the  other." 

The  next  problem  is  that  of  pleasing  harmonies  of 
two  colors.  Jastrow,  in  the  tests  conducted  at  the 
World's  Fair,  found  that  there  was  no  combination  of 
colors  which  occupied  the  position  of  a  decided  favorite 
as  did  blue  among  the  single  colors.  The  two  most 
frequently  preferred  combinations  were  red  and  violet, 
and  red  and  blue.  Third  came  blue  and  violet.  Then 
followed  Hght  red  and  light  green,  red  and  green,  light 
red  and  light  blue,  and  red  and  light  green.  The  most 
generally  avoided  were  orange  and  green,  orange  and 
violet,  and  light  orange  and  light  blue.    The  tints  of  the 


THE  APPEARANCE  OF  ADVERTISEMENTS    263 


colors  appear  relatively  more  frequently  in  the  color 
combinations  than  in  the  single  color  preferences,  and 
this  in  particular  is  the  case  for  the  women. 

A  somewhat  more  painstaking  investigation  on  the 
problem  was  carried  out  at  the  University  of  Toronto.^ 
The  general  method  used  was  to  expose  the  colors, 
which  were  83  mm.  by  33.5  mm.,  upon  a  table  covered 
with  black  velvet.  Each  color  was  placed  beside  all 
of  the  others  in  turn,  and  the  subject  asked  to  pick  out 
those  combinations  which  were  found  to  be  pleasant, 
together  with  the  most  pleasant  one  of  the  whole  series. 
The  work  was  divided  into  several  parts :  the  combina- 
tions of  saturated  colors  with  saturated  colors;  of 
saturated  colors  with  tints;  of  saturated  colors  with 
shades;  of  tints  with  tints;  of  shades  with  shades;  of 
tints  with  shades ;  and  of  shades  with  tints.  The  results 
will  be  taken  up  under  these  separate  headings. 

I.  Combinations  of  Saturated  Colors  with  Saturated 
Colors. 

In  the  table  given  below,  each  color  is  given  in  the 
left-hand  column.  In  the  next  three  columns  in  order 
will  be  shown  the  color  which  makes  the  best  combina- 
tion with  it,  the  second  best  combination,  and  the  third 
best  combination. 

It  was  found  that  the  results  could  be  grouped  into 
four  broadly  marked  classes:  (i)  those  in  which  the 
maximum  of  agreeableness  occurred  at  or  extremely 
near  the  complementary,  (2)  those  in  which  the  most 
agreeable  combinations  occurred  near  the  complementary, 
but  in  which  the  complementary  itself  stood  low  in  the 
affective  scale,  (3)  those  in  which  there  were  decided 
maxima  on  both  sides  of  the  complementary,  while  the 
complementary  itself  was  low,  and  (4)  those  in  which  the 
most  agreeable  combination  did  not  occur  at  or  near 
the  complementary. 

*  University  of  Toronto  Studies,  Psychological  Series,  Vols.  I  and  II. 


!♦< 


II 


81 


264     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 


COLOE 

Best  Combinatioii 

Second  Best 

Third  Best 

Red 

Green  blue  green 

Y.  Y.  G. 

Y.  G. 

R.  R.  0. 

G.  B.  G. 

Y.  Y.  G. 

Y.  G. 

R.  0. 

G.  B.  G. 

Y.  Y.  G. 

B. 

0.  R.  O. 

V.  R.  V. 

B. 

G.  Y.  G. 

O. 

V.  R.  V. 

B. 

B.  B.  V. 

0.  Y.  0. 

B. 

G.  B.  G. 

V.  R.  V. 

Y.  0. 

B. 

G.  B.  G. 

B.  B.  V. 

Y.  Y.  O. 

B. 

V.  R.  V. 

V. 

Y. 

V.  R.  V. 

G.  B.  G. 

B. 

Y.  Y.  G. 

V.  R.  V. 

B.  B.  V. 

B. 

Y.  G. 

V.  R.  V. 

R.  R.  V. 

R.  V. 

G.  Y.  G. 

R. 

R.V. 

R.  R.  V. 

G. 

Y. 

R. 

R.  R.  V. 

G.  B.  G. 

R. 

Y. 

R.  0. 

B.  G. 

Y. 

Y.  Y.  O. 

R. 

6.  B.  G. 

Y. 

Y.  Y.  O. 

Y.  Y.  G. 

B. 

Y.  Y.  0. 

Y. 

Y.  Y.  G. 

B.  B.  V. 

Y.  Y.  O. 

Y.  Y.  G. 

Y. 

B.  V. 

Y. 

Y.  Y.  G. 

Y.  Y.  0. 

V.  B.  V. 

Y.  Y.  G. 

Y.  Y.  0. 

Y. 

V. 

Y.  Y.  G. 

Y.  Y.  O. 

Y. 

V.  R.  V. 

Y.  Y.  G. 

Y. 

Y.  Y.  0. 

R.  V. 

Y.  Y.  G. 

Y.  Y.  G. 

G.  Y.  G. 

R.  R.  V. 

Y.  G. 

G.  B.  G. 

Y.  Y.  O.i 

2.  Combinations  of  Tints  and  Saturated  Colors. 
The  results  of  this  investigation  are  summarized  in 
the  following  table : 


Tints 

Harmonize 
Best  Wrra 

Harmonize  WrrH 

Do  not 
Harmonize  With 

Red 

Orange 

Yellow 

Yellow-green 

Green 

Blue 

Violet 

Purple 

Yellow-green 

Green 

Themselves 

Themselves 

Red 

Themselves 

Themselves 

Themselves 

Violet-purple 

Themselves 

Yellow-green 

Yellow-green 

Themselves 

Their  neighbors 

Yellow 

YeUow 

Blue  and  violet 
Blue 
Blue 
Blue 

Orange,  Blue 
Green,  Red 
Red,  Blue 
Red,  Violet 

1  The  letters  refer  to  the  abbreviations  used  to  designate  the  colors  in 
the  Prang  series.    R  =  red.    R.  R.  O.  -  red  red  orange,  meaning  that 


< 


THE  APPEARANCE  OF  ADVERTISEMENTS     265 

This  table  shows  that  the  yellow,  blue,  violet,  and 
purple  tints  harmonize  best  with  the  saturated  color  of 
the  same  tone,  whereas  red  and  green  tints  do  not,  but 
make  the  most  pleasing  combinations  with  different 
saturated  tones. 

3.   Combinations  of  Shades  and  Saturated  Colors, 
The  results  are  again  summarized  in  the  form  of  a 
table : 


m 


Shades 

Best  Combination 

Secx)nd  Best 

Third  Best 

Red 

Orange 

YeUow 

Yellow-green 

Green 

Blue-green 

Blue 

Violet 

Purple 

Yellow-green 

Orange 

Purple 

Yellow-green 

Orange-yellow 

Purple 

Yellow 

Violet 

Yellow-green 

Orange 

Red 

Blue 

Blue-green 

Purple 

Blue-green 

Blue-green 

Purple 

Yellow 

YeUow 
Blue-green 
Yellow-green 
Red 

Red 

Yellow-green 

YeUow 

Purple 

4.   Combinations  of  Shades  with  Shades. 


Shade 

Harmonize  Best  With 

Harmonize  With 

Do  not  Harmonize  With 

R. 

YG. 

R. 

V.  P.  OR.  B. 

0. 

YG. 

0. 

V.  P.  B.  Y. 

Y. 

YG.  BG.  R. 

B.  P. 

V.  Y. 

YG. 

R. 

B.  Y.  BG. 

V. 

BG. 

R.  Y.  YG. 

BG. 

V. 

B. 

Y.  G. 

R. 

V.  P.  0. 

V. 

YG.  Y. 

BG.  R.  P. 

B.  V.  P. 

P. 

YG.  BG. 

R. 

RP.  0.  V.  B. 

the  color  is  red  with  just  a  little  orange  in  it.  The  other  colors  are  des- 
ignated in  the  same  way.  A  color  used  as  a  noim  means  a  greater  amount 
of  the  color;  as  an  adjective,  a  lesser  amount  of  the  color. 


266     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

5.   Combinations  of  Tints  with  Tints. 


Tint 

Harmonize  Best  With 

Harmonize  With 

Do  NOT  Harmonize  With 

R. 

YG. 

0.  Y. 

P.  V.  B.  R. 

0. 

G.  YG.  BG. 

R.  V. 

P.  B.  0. 

Y. 

G.  R. 

B.  V. 

Y.  P. 

YG. 

R. 

V.  0. 

YG.  B. 

BG. 

P.  0.  Y. 

B.V. 

BG. 

B. 

Y. 

G. 

B.  V.  P.  R. 

V. 

Y.  YG.  BG. 

P. 

R.  B.  V. 

P. 

BG.  YG.  0. 

Y.  V. 

R.  P. 

6.  Combinations  of  Shades  with  Tints, 


Shade 

Harmonize  Best  With 

Harmonize  With 

Do  not  Harmonize  Wrra 

R. 

BG.  YG. 

0.  Y. 

V.  B.  P. 

0. 

G. 

0. 

V.  B.  P.  R. 

Y. 

G. 

R.  0.  Y. 

V. 

YG. 

YG. 

0. 

BG. 

BG. 

G. 

B. 

R. 

B. 

YG.  B. 

0. 

V.  R. 

V. 

YG. 

V.  0. 

B. 

P. 

G. 

OY.  R. 

B.  V.  P. 

7.   Combinations  of  Tints  with  Shades. 


Tint 

Harmonize  Best  With 

Harmonize  With 

Do  NOT  Harmonize  With 

R. 

YG. 

Y.  R. 

V.  P.  B. 

0. 

YG. 

R. 

V.  B. 

Y. 

BG. 

YG.  P.  R.  0.  Y. 

V. 

YG. 

YG. 

B.  P.  0. 

V. 

BG. 

YG. 

BG.  Y.  R.  P. 

V.  0. 

B. 

G.  B. 

Y. 

V.  P.  R. 

V. 

YG. 

V. 

R.  0.  B. 

P. 

G. 

Y.V. 

B.  R. 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  draw  any  general  laws  from 


I  1 1' 


THE  APPEARANCE  OF  ADVERTISEMENTS     267 


the  tables  which  have  been  given,  for  so  many  exceptions 
appear.  With  the  saturated  colors  the  tendency  is  to 
find  the  most  pleasing  combinations  in  the  direction  of 
the  complementaries,  usually  falling  to  one  side  or  the 
other.  With  shades  and  tints  combined  together  or 
with  saturated  colors,  the  tendency  seems  to  be  for  reds 
and  greens  to  combine  well  with  other  color  tones,  while 
the  yellows  and  blues  harmonize  better  with  different 
degrees  of  saturation  of  themselves  and  neighboring  hues. 

In  addition  to  color  and  combinations  of  color,  geo- 
metrical figures,  together  with  their  boundary  lines, 
enter  into  the  make-up  of  an  advertisement.  It  is 
necessary,  then,  to  discuss  the  aesthetic  value  of  lines  and 
the  combination  of  lines  into  figures.  Lines  differ  from 
each  other  in  color,  brightness  or  value,  length,  breadth, 
and  direction. 

Nothing  new  need  be  said  of  color.  Concerning  the 
other  qualities  of  lines,  the  following  general  principles 
may  be  said  to  hold : 

"A  fine  gray  line  suggests  delicacy  of  texture." 

"A  fine  black  line  suggests  precision  and  hardness." 

"Abroad  rough  line  suggests  homeliness  and  soHdity." 
"  Broad  black  lines  have  a  character  of  distinctness  and 
independence."  ^ 

As  illustration  of  these  principles,  note  the  following 
advertisements.  The  Tiffany  advertisement,  with  the 
narrow  black  lines  which  make  up  the  border,  the  narrow- 
faced  type,  suggests  the  hardness  and  precision  which 
is  inseparable  from  jewelry.  The  Gorman  advertise- 
ment, with  its  broader  lines,  both  in  border  and  in  type 
face,  suggests  the  solidity  and  weight  which  are  insep- 
arable from  table  and  decorative  silver. 

The  Direction  of  Lines.  —  Lines  may  be  classified  as 
horizontal,  vertical,  diagonal,  and  curved.  These  lines 
obtain  their  symbolism  by  the  process  of  association. 

*  Gordon,  ELate,  "  Esthetics,'*  page  160. 


K' 


■l! 


,.||. 


fl' 

4 


Hi 

H 

1  ^ 

■J  1 

,;      1 

ii  ■'" 

1 

3  '»■ 

268     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

The  horizontal  line,  because  of  its  association  with 
solidity,  immovability,  a  low  center  of  gravity,  and  the 
like,  has  come  to  mean  ease,  repose,  and  relaxation. 

The  verticals,  on  the  other  hand,  have  the  opposite 
meaning  of  severity,  rigor,  effort.  Because  the  realiza- 
tion of  many  of  our  ideals  is  accompanied  by  a  consider- 
able amount  of  strain  or  effort,  the  vertical  has  in  a 
secondary  way  become  associated  with  the  sublime, 
and  with  many  of  the  lofty  tendencies  of  man. 

Diagonals  are  the  lines  of  action  and  movement.  Our 
bodies  when  active  tend  to  assume  diagonal  positions, 
and  hence  the  association  of  the  diagonal  with  movement 
is  formed. 

Curved  lines,  no  matter  whether  the  curve  is  arc, 
spiral,  serpentine,  loop,  or  anything  else,  are  supposed 
to  be  more  graceful  and  pleasing  than  straight  lines. 
The  reason  for  the  greater  pleasure  which  is  felt  for 
curved  lines  has  never  been  satisfactorily  explained. 
The  old  notion  that  the  pleasure  was  derived  from  the 
ease  of  eye  movement  in  following  the  lines  was  dis- 
proved by  Stratton.i  He  found  that  the  path  which 
the  eye  follows  when  observing  a  curved  line  is  itself 
anytlung  but  curved.  It  is  generally  a  succession  of 
straight  lines  which  do  not  follow  at  all  accurately  the 
outlines  of  the  curve. 

Geometrical  Forms.  —  The  pleasingness  of  many 
figures  has  been  investigated  experimentally.  The  ones 
which  are  most  frequent  in  advertising  display  are 
triangles,  rectangles,  circles,  and  ellipses. 

I.  The  triangle,  because  it  is  made  up  so  largely  of 
diagonal  lines,  is  called  lively,  incisive,  yet  it  is  at  the 
same  time  well  balanced.  Experiment  has  shown  that 
the  most  pleasing  triangle,  when  resting  on  its  base,  is 
the  one  whose  altitude  is  approximately  1.50  times  its 
base. 

^  Stratton,  "PhUos.  Studien,"  Vol.  20,  pages  336-360. 


4 


THE  APPEARANCE  OF  ADVERTISEMENTS    269 

2.  Rectangles  may  be  said  to  begin  with  the  square, 
and  as  one  side  increases  and  the  other  decreases,  they 
shade  over  into  the  horizontal  Une  in  one  direction  and 
the  vertical  in  the  other.  All  of  the  horizontal  rectangles 
partake  more  or  less  of  the  nature  of  the  horizontal  Line, 
and  the  vertical  rectangles  likewise  are  similar  to  the 
perpendicular  line  in  meaning.  The  meeting  place  of 
these  two  tendencies  appears  to  be  the  square,  but  the 
square  presents  an  anomaly,  for  when  it  is  geometrically 
perfect,  it  appears  to  be  higher  than  it  is  broad.  This 
is  due  to  the  tendency  to  overestimate  perpendicular 
lines.  The  amount  of  this  illusion  is  not  very  great, 
being  approximately  2  per  cent. 

Certain  proportions  of  rectangles  have  been  foimd  to 
be  much  more  pleasing  than  others.  Zeising,  because  of 
theoretical  considerations,  and  Fechner,  on  experimental 
grounds,  argued  that  a  rectangle  having  its  sides  in  the 
ratio  of  the  golden  section,  was  the  most  pleasing.  The 
golden  section  is  the  division  of  a  line  into  two  parts  of 
such  a  length  that  the  short  part  is  to  the  long  part  as 
the  long  part  is  to  the  sum  of  the  two  parts.  This  gives 
a  ratio  of  roughly  i.oo  to  1.62,  or  approximately  5  to  8. 
The  maximum  of  pleasantness  has  been  found  time  and 
time  again  to  lie  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  golden  section. 

Ellipses.  —  Li  the  same  way  that  the  horizontal  and 
perpendicular  rectangles  merge  into  the  square  on  the 
one  hand  and  the  line  on  the  other,  the  ellipses  may 
be  considered  to  start  with  the  circle  and  diverge  towards 
the  two  types  of  lines,  deriving  in  this  way  their  meaning. 
The  curved  lines  make  the  figure  more  graceful  than  the 
more  severe  rectangle  and  tend  to  unify  the  content  in 
a  better  manner.  Experiments  have  again  indicated 
that  the  most  pleasing  proportions  for  an  ellipse  are 
found  when  the  long  axis  and  the  short  axis  bear  ap- 
proximately the  relation  of  1.00:1.50  to  each  other. 
See  the  table  below : 


ii 


4 

« 

i    ! 

i 

]■ 

\ 

mi 

i 


II 


270     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 


Proportion  of  Sides 

Per  Cent  of  Choices 

Rectangles 

ElUpses 

i/i 
6/5 
5/4 

4/3 
29/20 

3/2 
34/21  G.  S. 

23/13 
2/1 

5/.             , 

3-05 
0-35 
1-54 
2.66 

8.60 
19.77 

35-17 

19-31 
8.09 

1.56 

1.2 

0.6 

8.3 
14.7 

42.4 
16.7 

I3-I 
1.6 
0.0 

Another  point  which  may  be  of  some  interest  is  the 
harmonization  of  colors  and  forms.  In  the  experiment 
to  determine  this  relationship,  the  colors  red,  orange, 
yellow,  green,  blue,  and  violet  were  shown  on  a  white 
background  in  the  following  forms:  circle,  square, 
ellipse,  triangle,  and  rectangle.  Fifty-three  subjects  were 
used.  The  results  are  given  in  the  following  table,  the 
figures  indicating  the  average  position  in  the  entire 
series  of  judgments: 


Rib 

Orange 

Yellow 

Green 

Blue 

Violet 

Circle       .     .     . 

3.1 

2.6 

2.9 

3-6 

3-5 

2.8 

EUipse-perp. .     . 

3-8 

4.58 

4.3 

4.8 

4.4 

4-05 

EUipse-hor.    .     . 

5-33 

5-4 

5.8 

4.98 

5-3 

5-35 

Tnangle-up. .     . 

4.0 

3-6 

4.0 

3-4 

3-8 

4.2 

Triangle-in.  .     . 

%7 

4-52 

4.6 

4.4 

4-8 

5-3 

Square      .     .     . 

4.2 

4.3 

4.15 

4-2 

3-7 

4-05 

Rect.-perp.    .    . 

S-i 

5-0 

4.18 

4.92 

5-2 

4.9 

Rect.-hor.      .    . 

532 

5-6 

5-6 

5-4 

5-0 

5-1 

This  table  shows  that  all  of  the  colors  except  green 
are  preferred  in  circles.  Green  is  liked  best  in  the 
upright  triangle.     Considering  the  shapes,  it  shows  that 


k  '■ 


i 


THE  APPEARANCE  OF  ADVERTISEMENTS    271 

if  a  circle  must  be  used,  the  best  colors  to  put  into  it  are 
in  order,  orange,  violet,  and  yellow.  Red  and  violet 
are  liked  better  than  the  other  colors  in  perpendicular 
ellipses,  whereas  in  the  horizontal  ellipses,  green  and  blue 
are  slightly  preferable.  In  the  upright  triangle,  green 
is  the  most  pleasing  color,  followed  by  orange  and  blue. 
In  the  inverted  triangle,  green  is  the  best  color,  with 
orange  and  yellow  coming  next.  The  blue  square  is 
preferred,  though  violet  and  yellow  may  be  substituted. 
For  the  perpendicular  rectangle,  yellow,  violet,  and  green 
prove  to  be  the  most  satisfactory  colors,  whereas  for 
the  horizontal  rectangle,  blue  and  violet  are  the  most 
satisfactory. 

Having  considered  the  elements  which  are  to  go  into 
the  advertising  space,  together  with  the  most  pleasing 
colors  and  proportions  of  forms,  the  next  problem  which 
arises  is  that  of  their  arrangement,  for  they  must  be 
grouped  together  in  such  a  way  that  the  total  impression 
from  the  advertisement  is  pleasing.  Again  the  arrange- 
ment is  made  on  analogy  with  the  human  body.  The 
body  of  man  is  bilaterally  symmetrical,  and  it  has  been 
found  that  any  object  to  appear  pleasing  must  likewise 
be  symmetrical. 

Considering  first  the  perpendicular  division  of  the 
page,  made  by  drawing  a  straight  line  down  through  the 
middle,  certain  laws  have  been  determined.  Objects 
of  the  same  size,  shape,  color,  etc.,  should  be  equally 
distant  from  the  mid-line  of  the  page.  When  this  is 
done,  balance  is  secured.  In  this  cas^  balance  follows 
the  mechanical  laws  of  the  lever,  equal  weights  at  an 
equal  distance  from  the  fulcrum  balancing.  But  this 
arrangement  is  entirely  conventional  and  is  likely  to 
prove  iminteresting  and  even  unpleasant.  So  variations 
are  frequently  introduced. 

If  a  large  mass  is  to  be  balanced  against  a  small  mass 
the  large  mass  must  be  nearer  the  center  of  the  page  and 


* 


f 


J  I 


m 


I( 


frl 


mi 


272     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

the  smaller  more  distant.  Again  the  law  is  that  of  the 
mechanical  balance  or  lever,  for  the  middle  of  the  page 
is  still  the  fulcrum  and  the  greater  weight  is  compensated 
by  a  shorter  lever  arm. 

Various  other  things  may  be  substituted  for  mass. 
Certain  colors,  for  example,  appear  to  be  heavier  than 
others.  Yellow  is  a  light  color,  and  green  too  seems  to 
be  somewhat  lighter  than  red  and  blue.  A  suggested 
action  in  a  particular  direction  gives  the  general  impres- 
sion that  the  action  has  taken  place,  at  least  in  part,  and 
there  must  be  a  change  in  the  actual  position  of  the 
figure  to  compensate  for  this.  A  curved  line  must  be 
placed  nearer  to  or  farther  from  the  center  as  the  curve 
is  towards  or  away  from  the  center.  An  interesting 
object  is  for  balance  a  heavier  object  and  must  conse- 
quently be  placed  nearer  the  center  of  the  page  than 
one  which  is  not  so  interesting.  Lastly,  distance,  depth, 
or  vista  may  be  substituted  for  mass,  for  the  smaller 
object  in  the  background  is  interpreted  as  being  larger 
than  it  appears. 

The  other  division  of  the  page,  by  means  of  a  hori- 
zontal line  through  the  center,  gives  the  relations  con- 
cerning the  stability  of  the  advertisement  or  picture. 
To  quote  from  Gordon,^  "Another  phase  of  the  problem 
of  balance  is  the  distribution  of  masses  and  space  between 
the  upper  and  lower  parts  of  a  composition.  An  arrange- 
ment may  be  symmetrical  on  its  right  and  left  halves, 
but  wholly  unsymmetrical  as  between  upper  and  lower 
halves.  In  general,  to  prevent  top-heaviness  and  give, 
as  it  were,  enough  ballast  to  a  composition,  there  should 
be  more  below  the  center  than  above  it.  Pierce's  ex- 
periments show  that  the  principle  of  stability  is  even 
of  more  moment  than  that  of  right-and-left  balance. 
An  inverted  pyramid  would  be  an  unpleasant  and  pre- 
carious-looking structure.  The  visible  sign  of  a  sure 
>  Gordon,  Kate,  "Esthetics,"  pages  188-189. 


THE  APPEARANCE  OF  ADVERTISEMENTS    273 

equilibrium  is  breadth  of  base,  and  most  massive  things 
are  built  to  slope  by  more  or  less  obvious  degrees  toward 
their  tops.  It  is  not  true,  though,  that  all  beautiful 
and  well-poised  forms  are  larger  at  the  bottom;  very 
good  effects  are  sometimes  secured  by  putting  the  mass 
of  the  thing  represented  near  the  upper  limit  of  the 
picture.  A  mass  of  graceful  flowers  may  fill  the  upper 
part  with  only  their  slender  stalks  below;  a  drift  of 
clouds  or  a  flock  of  birds  may  be  shown  high  up  in  the 
picture,  with  only  a  few  landscape  lines  below,  the  nearest 
approach  to  empty  space.  Why  do  not  such  pictures 
look  as  top-heavy  and  unstable  as  the  inverted  pyramid? 

"The  reason  is  that  they  represent  things  that  are 
not  dead,  inanimate  weights,  but  are  delicate  and  light. 
Placing  the  flowers  or  clouds  or  birds  above  the  center 
of  the  picture,  with  the  empty  space  below,  is  just  what 
suits  their  character,  and  brings  out  their  lightness  and 
buoyancy.  These  two  facts,  then,  are  part  of  the  same 
truth :  to  gain  stability,  large  masses  must  be  below  the 
center,  and  this  is  appropriate  when  the  masses  are 
supposed  to  be  heavy ;  to  gain  freedom  and  buoyancy, 
masses  may  lie  above  the  center,  and  this  is  appropriate 
when  the  masses  represent  something  light." 

Another  element  in  many,  if  not  most,  successful  ad- 
vertisements is  the  picture.  A  good  deal  has  already 
been  written  concerning  pictures,  but  little  concerning 
their  aesthetic  value.  If  but  one  picture  is  used,  it 
should  follow  the  laws  of  symmetry  and  balance  which 
have  been  given  above.  If  two  are  used,  they  should 
be  placed  in  such  a  position  as  to  balance  each  other. 
It  is  practically  impossible  to  determine  what  the  sub- 
ject of  the  picture  should  be.  At  least,  it  should  be 
relevant,  connected  in  some  way  with  the  commodity 
or  the  use  of  the  commodity.  It  should  also  be  pleasing 
in  its  general  tone.  Colored  pictures  have  a  higher 
attention  value  than  uncolored  ones,  and  they  also  cost 


II 


in 


■Ill 


<  J'    f 


.!    I' 


II 


274     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

more.  However,  by  the  use  of  colors,  it  is  possible  to 
portray  the  article  much  more  adequately  and  accurately. 
Some  of  the  general  principles  of  illustrations  may  be 
brought  out  in  the  account  of  an  experiment  which  was 
performed  to  test  the  effect  of  illustrations.  Soap  ad- 
vertisements were  used  throughout,  for  it  was  desirable 
to  use  but  one  kind  of  commodity.  Sixteen  full-page 
advertisements  of  various  kinds  of  soap  were  selected 
and  arranged  in  order  of  merit  by  50  subjects,  half  of 
them  being  men  and  half  women,  in  terms  of  the  pleasant- 
ness of  the  illustration.  The  two  best  advertisements 
and  the  worst,  from  this  standpoint,  will  be  considered 
in  some  detail. 

The  accompanying  advertisement.  Fig.  XVII,  proved 
to  be  the  most  pleasing  in  the  estimation  of  the  50  sub- 
jects who  were  experimented  upon.  In  the  first  place, 
the  figure  of  the  young  girl  catches  the  attention  through 
its  simplicity.  It  stands  out  strongly  enough  to  attract 
attention  and  yet  is  not  too  sharply  de&ied.  Next, 
and  more  important,  it  holds  attention  through  its  interest 
incentives:  it  is  pleasing  to  look  upon,  we  do  not  tire 
of  it,  we  like  to  study  it.  It  is  in  the  proper  part  of  the 
page,  the  upper  comer  of  the  outside,  for  this  happened 
to  be  a  right-hand  page.  The  advertisement  is  rather 
complex  —  always  necessary  to  sustained  attention  — 
and  the  picture  is  relevant.  The  fluffiness  of  the  girl's 
hair,  her  clear  skin,  her  dainty  white  garments,  all  sug- 
gest cleanhness.  This  in  turn  calls  to  mind  "soap." 
The  entire  feeling  tone  is  pleasant,  thus  putting  the 
reader  in  a  corresponding  mood. 

The  next  advertisement,  Fig.  XVIII,  which  was  the 
second  choice,  presents  the  universal  appeal  of  food, 
yet  this  is  simply  the  atmosphere  of  the  whole  advertise- 
nient,  for  there  is  no  food  in  sight  to  distract  the  atten- 
tion. There  is  strong  suggested  activity,  the  eyes  of 
those  in  the  foreground  being  turned  upon  the  woman 


(   r 


!    fl 


tftiT 


MOTHER'S  lace 
bodice  cA  (kys 
gone  by  becomes 
riaughler'a  lace  tunic 
oi  today.  It  has  sur- 
vived the  year*  and  i« 
as   charming  novtr  as 

ever  because  the  rare,  "^^^^^^^ 

old    handwork    never  ^ifl^B^V"      \i 

has  been  waslwid  with 
anything  but  Ivory 
Soap. 

Ivory  washes  safely  the  finest, 
sheerest  materials  because,  in  its 
way,  it  is  just  as  delicate  and  pure 
as  they.  It  contains  nothing  coarse, 
nothing  harsh,  nothing  infenor; 
no  impurities,  i»o  substitutes,  no  makeshifts. 

Ivory  Soap  is  genuine,  through  and  through:  it  is  pure,  high  grad.* 
aoap— nothing  else -and  therefore  entirely  hamiless  to  arty  lace  or 
other  delicate  fabric  that  is  not  injured  by  water. 


vr^ 


IVORY  SOAP 


Fig.  XVII. 


99^^  PURE 


INTENTIONAL  SECOND  EXPOSURE 


274     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

more.  However,  by  the  use  of  colors,  it  is  possible  to 
portray  the  article  much  more  adequately  and  accurately. 
Some  of  the  general  principles  of  illustrations  may  be 
brought  out  in  the  account  of  an  experiment  which  was 
performed  to  test  the  effect  of  illustrations.  Soap  ad- 
vertisements were  used  throughout,  for  it  was  desirable 
to  use  but  one  kind  of  commodity.  Sixteen  full-page 
advertisements  of  various  kinds  of  soap  were  selected 
and  arranged  in  order  of  merit  by  50  subjects,  half  of 
them  being  men  and  half  women,  in  terms  of  the  pleasant- 
Bess  of  the  illustration.  The  two  best  advertisements 
and  the  worst,  from  this  standpoint,  will  be  considered 
in  some  detail. 

The  accompanying  advertisement.  Fig.  XVII,  proved 
to  be  the  most  pleasing  in  the  estimation  of  the  50  sub- 
jects who  were  experimented  upon.  In  the  first  place, 
the  figure  of  the  young  girl  catches  the  attention  through 
its  siniphcity.  It  stands  out  strongly  enough  to  attract 
attention  and  yet  is  not  too  sharply  defined.  Next, 
and  more  important,  it  holds  attention  through  its  interest 
incentives :  it  is  pleasing  to  look  upon,  we  do  not  tire 
of  it,  we  like  to  study  it.  It  is  in  the  proper  part  of  the 
page,  the  upper  corner  of  the  outside,  for  this  happened 
to  be  a  right-hand  page.  The  advertisement  is  rather 
complex  —  always  necessary  to  sustained  attention  — 
and  the  picture  is  relevant.  The  fluifiness  of  the  girl's 
hair,  her  clear  skin,  her  dainty  white  garments,  all  sug- 
gest cleanliness.  This  in  turn  calls  to  mind  ''soap." 
The  entire  feeling  tone  is  pleasant,  thus  putting  the 
reader  in  a  corresponding  mood. 

The  next  advertisement,  Fig.  XVIII,  which  was  the 
second  choice,  presents  the  universal  appeal  of  food, 
yet  this  is  simply  the  atmosphere  of  the  whole  advertise- 
ment, for  there  is  no  food  in  sight  to  distract  the  atten- 
tion. There  is  strong  suggested  activity,  the  eyes  of 
those  in  the  foreground  being  turned  upon  the  woman 


- 


V 


r 


i 


[OTHER'S  larf 
IkkIkc  'A  liavs 
p' in*  !)V  !'«"f  ('tn«-*i 
(!.»u^'li{i-r  s  U"  f  tunic 
ut  toiiay.  It  has  sur- 
viv«»d  the  years  and  vs 
as  <  iiarrnmg  n<>w  as 
t'\f'-T  Jx'tausf"  t}i«'  rare. 
oiti  h.iM'lwork  tMvrr 
has  Fk^'H  wa«*}i«-«l  >Mth 
anything  but  Ivory 
S<>ap. 

Ivory  washes  safely  the  finest, 
sheerest  ttjaterials  Ix-Ciiust'.  in  lt^« 
wa\ ,  It  IS  Ju^t  as  (JelK:ate  and  pure 
as  they.  It  contains  nothing  coarse, 
nothing  harsh,  nothing  inferior. 
no  inipurities.   no  sub^ntitutcs,  no  !!iak«*shifls. 

Ivory  N>ap  is  genuine,  throiigh  and  ihmugh:  it  i«  pure  l.mh  urKi-- 
soap-  nothing  else  and  therefore  entirely  harniless  to  any  Luc  or 
other  delicate  fabnc  that  is  not  injure*!  by  water. 


Ill 


IVORY  SOAP 


.  99a?  PURE 


h, 


Fig.  XVII. 


i 


THE  APPEARANCE  OF  ADVERTISEMENTS     275 

who  is  examining  the  cloth.  Her  figure,  a  trifle  larger 
than  the  others,  occupies  the  best  position  on  the  page, 
the  upper  right-hand  corner,  since  it  is  a  right-hand 
page.  The  soft,  broad,  gray  line  binding  the  cut  to  the 
printed  matter  below  encourages  the  eye  to  travel  from 
the  cut  to  the  print. 

The  poorest  picture  of  the  entire  sixteen  is  shown  in 
Fig.  XIX.  The  hand,  sketchily  drawn  and  without 
character,  is  but  a  means  of  showing  the  soap.  The 
soap,  in  turn,  is  simply  a  signboard  for  a  great  deal  of 
lettering ;  it  is  also  not  a  faithful  copy  of  the  commodity. 

In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  cuts  which  were 
ranked  high  had  interest  incentives,  were  pleasing  to 
look  at,  were  well  placed,  suggested  activity,  and  pos- 
sessed more  or  less  balance.  Without  exception,  the 
illustrations  were  relevant.  They  were  of  persons 
rather  than  things  and  occupied  at  least  a  quarter  of  a 
page. 

Those  which  were  ranked  low  usually  had  a  cut  placed 
where  it  had  poor  attention  value,  were  poorly  drawn, 
inappropriate,  and  had  little  aesthetic  appeal.  There 
was  often  a  lack  of  unity,  no  suggested  activity,  and 
frequently  no  background  whatever.  Borders  which 
separated  the  cut  from  the  text  were  very  generally 
disliked. 

Both  Hollingworth  and  Strong  have  pointed  out  the 
fact  that  there  are  two  types  of  persons  with  regard  to 
cuts.  The  liking  for  pictures  in  advertisements  is  per- 
haps connected  in  some  way  with  the  type  of  imagery 
which  the  person  possesses.  Should  he  be  of  the  visual 
variety,  the  cut  may  not  come  up  to  his  expectations 
and  for  that  reason  be  disliked.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
the  person  has  little  or  no  visual  imagery,  but  thinks  of 
things  not  present  to  the  senses  in  terms  of  auditory  and 
motor  data,  a  cut  is  practically  indispensable.  Strong^s 
results  obtained  from  thirty  women  on  ten  soap  adver- 


^ 


. 


I),  ' 


276     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 


If 


tisements  show  very  strikingly  the  existence  of  the  two 
types.  In  the  table  below,  plus  and  minus  indicate 
that  the  advertisement  was  placed  respectively  above 
or  below  the  average  of  both  groups  by  either  group  A 
or  group  B. 


Aix  Cut 

ICUT 

ICxrr 

ICUT 

No  Cut 

A     .    . 
B     .    . 

-4.2 

+  31 

+  O.IS 
-0.30 

+  0.3 
+  0.4 

-0.4 
+  0.35 

+  1.8 
-1.61 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  table  that  there  is  one  group 
which  likes  cuts  and  dislikes  all-text  advertisements. 
There  is  another  group  which  shows  exactly  the  reverse 
tendency.  The  only  place  in  which  both  groups  show 
a  plus  sign,  indicating  a  liking  for  the  advertisements 
thus  constructed,  is  where  the  advertisement  is  half  cut 
and  half  text. 

1  This  table  is  adapted  from  the  one  given  by  HoUingworth,  "Adver- 
tising and  Selling,"  page  109. 


If 


. 


[f 


fH, 


.%.  ' 


y 


^4: 


j^.\ 


/ 


-»*ftj 


r  v«c  wwi-w  *  tMMLC  4a,  r«CM 


'HE  hostess  whose  linens  win  the  admirs^on  of  her 
guests  is  blessed  yrith  something  more  than  good  taste. 
She  is  twice-blessed  in  knowing  the  value  of  Ivory  Soap 
for  keeping  delicate  fabrics  like  new. 

Fme  linen  cannot  stand  the  effect  of  ordinary  soaps.  Free 
alkali,  unsaponified  oil  and  inferior  materials  soon  discolor  and 
destroy  the  minute  threads  and  fibers.  The  only  way  to  wash 
such  pieces  sjafely  and  beautifully  is  to  use  soap  that  is  mild, 
pure  and  of  the  highest  grade.    That,  as  you  know,  is  Ivory. 

To  Wash  Fine  Linen 

Use  watof  dial  i*  wmfn.  not  hat.  U  the  watn  i*  hard,  aafica  witb 
boras.  Makes  thicJiIadicrwitlilTOfy  Soap.  Do  not  rub  the  aoap 
on  t}w  fabric.  Soak  tb«  piiacem  tkorouskljr  in  tbe  lather,  then  nib 
the  «poU  cendr  with  the  haiwia,  aovaioc  the  material  up  and  down 
in  At  su<U.  Rirtae  ia  •ercral  warm  watara  until  all  trace*  ei  Am 
■oap  ant  (one.  Rinac  once  a«ain  in  boilinc  water,  ioUowed  inu»*> 
diaicb'  by  a  rinainc  ia  aa  coU  watar  as  yon  can  obtain.  Haoc  i* 
the  tun.  il  poaaibla.  but  do  aol  let  d^  haca  <Uy  oooplrtabr.  bo* 
without  •prinkiiaii. 


IVORY  SOAP. . . 


_j 


^^  FLOATS 


99^%  FUSE 


Fig.  XVIII 


I 


•       i\ 


INTENTIONAL  SECOND  EXPOSURE 


276     ADVERTISING  AND   ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

tisements  show  very  strikingly  the  existence  of  the  two 
types.  In  the  table  below,  plus  and  minus  indicate 
that  the  advertisement  was  placed  respectively  above 
or  below  the  average  of  both  groups  by  either  group  A 
or  group  B. 


All  Cut 

fCXJT 

iCUT 

iCUT 

No  Ctrr 

A     .    . 
B     .    . 

-4.2 
+  3.1 

+  O.IS 
-0.30 

+0.3 

+  0.4 

-0.4 
+  0.35 

+  1.8 
-1.61 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  table  that  there  is  one  group 
which  likes  cuts  and  dislikes  all-text  advertisements. 
There  is  another  group  which  shows  exactly  the  reverse 
tendency.  The  only  place  in  which  both  groups  show 
a  plus  sign,  indicating  a  liking  for  the  advertisements 
thus  constructed,  is  where  the  advertisement  is  half  cut 
and  half  text. 

1  This  table  is  adapted  from  the  one  given  by  Hollingworth,  "Adver- 
tising and  Selling,"  page  109. 


\f 


■v-^. 


/ 


y 


■im 


>^; 


\ 


iftv 


^: 


/ 


"^\. 


# 


SHE   hostess  whose   linens   win   the  admiration   of   her 
guests  is  blessed  with  something  more  than  good  taste. 
She  is  twice-blessed  in  knowing  the  value  of  Ivory  Soap 
for  keeping  delicate  fabrics  like  new. 

Fine  linen  cannot  stand  the  effect  of  ordinary  soaps.  Free 
alkali,  unsaponified  oil  and  inferior  materials  soon  discolor  and 
destroy  the  minute  threads  and  fibers.  The  only  way  to  wash 
•uch  pieces  safely  and  beautifully  is  to  use  soap  that  is  mild, 
pure  and  of  the  highest  grade.    That,  as  you  know,  is  Ivory. 

To  Wash  Fine  Linen 

Umi  water  tkat »  warm,  not  hoi.  U  the  water  ia  hard,  aoden  with 
borax.  Make  a  thick  lather  witK  Ivory  Soap.  Oo  itoi  rub  the  aoap 
on  th«  fabric.  Soak  ibe  piece*  tKoioushlr  ia  the  latbrt .  then  rab 
the  tpotn  f  ently  with  the  handa,  aooainc  the  materiai  up  aiul  Jown 
in  the  *u<ia.  Rinae  in  aereral  warm  water*  until  aU  trace*  oi  the 
■cap  are  gone.  Rinae  once  acain  in  boilios  water,  followed  iinin» 
diately  by  a  riniinc  in  a*  cold  water  a*  you  can  obtain.  Hans  ia 
the  lun,  if  pouible.  but  do  not  let  the  Unen  dry  completely.  Uoa 
without  •pnnkjiikf . 


IVORY  SOAP. . 


992J?PURE 


'f  FLOX^S 


Kic.  XVIII 


1 


"I  il 


m\\ 


if] 


»m 


i 


CHAPTER  XIV 

Action 

In  the  previous  chapters  we  have  taken  up  the  various 
ways  in  which  an  individual  receives  information  con- 
cerning the  events  happening  in  his  environment,  and 
how  these  bits  of  information  persist  in  the  form  of 
memories.  ^  This  knowledge,  however,  would  be  useless 
to  the  individual  unless  it  could  result  in  some  move- 
ment or  series  of  movements  which  would  enable  the 
person  to  benefit  by  it.  Action  is  the  only  part  of  the 
entire  process  which  is  a  biological  necessity,  for  it  is 
primarily  by  movement  that  any  animal  can  escape 
danger  and  seek  those  things  which  are  beneficial  to  it. 
The  only  way  in  which  a  felt  need  can  be  realized  or 
satisfied  is  through  some  sort  of  action.  Since  advertis- 
ing is  one  phase  of  the  environment  which  gives  us  in- 
formation concerning  the  possible  ways  of  satisfying  the 
different  needs  which  are  in  the  consciousness  of  the 
individual,  since,  consequently,  all  advertisements  de- 
pend for  their  efficiency  upon  inducing  a  certain  definite 
kind  of  action  on  the  part  of  the  reader,  it  is  very  essential 
that  action,  in  many  of  its  phases,  should  be  studied  in 
more  or  less  detail. 

The  first  and  fundamental  law  of  action  has  been  called 
the  law  of  dynamogenesis.  It  states  that  any  sensation 
or  any  idea  will  result  in  some  kind  of  movement.  It 
does  not  state  what  muscles  shall  move  nor  how  soon  the 
movement  shall  take  place  after  a  stimulus  is  given.  It 
contents  itself  with  stating  merely  that  any  sensation  or 

277 


i 


1 


>-<iPii|IP!!iiVWWI¥^^ 


278     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

any  idea  will  eventually  cause  movement  of  some  sort. 
This  law  is  made  necessary  by  our  present  day  notions 
of  the  structure  and  function  of  the  nervous  system.  The 
nervous  system,  as  will  be  remembered,  is  composed  of 
elements  or  cells  called  neurones.  These  neurones  are 
connected  in  series  in  such  a  way  that  they  connect  the 
various  sense  organs  with  the  various  muscles.  The 
kinds  of  connections  are  very  complex,  so  that  any  sense 
organ  may  be  connected  with  any  muscle  in  the  whole 
body  and  the  course  from  the  sense  organ  to  the  muscle 
may  be  very  roundabout.  In  the  second  place,  these 
neurones  are  capable  of  conducting  nerve  impulses  in 
only  one  direction,  viz.,  from  sense  organ  towards 
muscle.  There  is  never  any  running  of  the  nerve  cur- 
rent in  the  opposite  direction.  Since  the  nerve  current 
is  the  result  of  a  stimulation  of  a  sense  organ,  because 
the  source  of  the  energy  is  the  sense  organ,  it  follows 
that  the  nerve  current  must  go  in  the  direction  of  the 
muscle.  When  the  nerve  current  gets  to  the  muscle, 
it  causes  a  contraction  of  the  fibers  and  the  result  is  an  ac- 
tion. The  only  differences  in  action  which  are  found  are 
in  the  particular  muscles  which  are  contracting  and  the 
extent  to  which  they  contract.  It  may  be  concluded, 
then,  that  any  sensation  or  any  idea,  in  fact  any  stimulus, 
which  is  received  by  a  sense  organ  or  a  sensory  region 
of  the  brain  will  result  in  movement. 

These  movements  are,  however,  of  different  sorts. 
The  following  classification  is  frequently  given : 

1.  Automatic  movements. 

2.  Reflex. 

3.  Instinctive. 

4.  Habitual. 

5.  Random  or  spontaneous. 

These  five  types  of  movement  are  the  only  ones  of 
which  the  human  being  is  capable.  The  first  three 
classes  are  inherited,  the  fourth  is  acquired,  and  the  last 


Pears'  Soap 


»        (UNSCCKTCO) 


I  by  ■• 


Everyone  knows  PEARS 

— knows  it  as  the  world's 

most  famous  soap — the  soap 

of   refinement  for  more  than   a 

century.     We    want    everyone    to 

Jhtow  PEARS  by  actual  use— to  reah'ze  fully 

all  the   exquisite    charm    of    this    delightful    soap 

We  offer  now  this  opportunity  to  try  PEARS  at  our  expense 
because   we    are   so   sure   that  the   use   of  this  trial  cake  will 
form  a  permanent  habit.      Once  you  know  the  real  pleasure 

Pears' Soap 

— how  refreshing  is  its  absolute  purity — how  delightfully  beneficial 
its  effect  on  the  skin — how  matchless  for  the  complexion — PEARS 
will  become  as  essential  a  part  of  your  daily  life  as  the  bathing  itself. 

You  will  be  delighted  also  to  learn  the  economy  of  PEARS  both  in 
its  low  cost  and  unusual  lasting  quality.  Pears  is  all  soap — all  pure — 
there  is  absolutely  no  waste — it  lasts  much  longer  than  ordinary  soap. 

|It   is   the   finest   soap    possible   to   produce   at   any   price— yet  the 
||inscented  is  sold  everywhere  at  not  over  I5c  a  cake. 

A.  &  F.  PEARS,  Ltd. 

T^f  largest   manufncturerg  of  high  grade 
toiUt  maps  in  the  norld. 

Do  net  paw  this  opportualty  to  kvinr  rh«  i>l««(urc  of  PEARS'  SOAP  faite  rour  daily  iif«.    S«nd  ywm 
iTw;      •**"»* »^  ..■jjdjIlyl^ly.Way* u.  W ALTCS  JANVIER.  V. S.  Ajrww  41$  Cual  St.  NMr YarfcCltr. 

Fig.  XIX 


INTENTIONAL  SECOND  EXPOSURE 


v' 

I 


i 

ii 


fj' 


278     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

any  idea  will  eventually  cause  movement  of  some  sort. 
This  law  is  made  necessary  by  our  present  day  notions 
of  the  structure  and  function  of  the  nervous  system.  The 
nervous  system,  as  will  be  remembered,  is  composed  of 
elements  or  cells  called  neurones.  These  neurones  are 
connected  in  series  in  such  a  way  that  they  connect  the 
various  sense  organs  with  the  various  muscles.  The 
kinds  of  connections  are  very  complex,  so  that  any  sense 
organ  may  be  connected  with  any  muscle  in  the  whole 
body  and  the  course  from  the  sense  organ  to  the  muscle 
may  be  very  roundabout.  In  the  second  place,  these 
neurones  are  capable  of  conducting  nerve  impulses  in 
only  one  direction,  viz.,  from  sense  organ  towards 
muscle.  There  is  never  any  running  of  the  nerve  cur- 
rent in  the  opposite  direction.  Since  the  nerve  current 
is  the  result  of  a  stimulation  of  a  sense  organ,  because 
the  source  of  the  energy  is  the  sense  organ,  it  follows 
that  the  nerve  current  must  go  in  the  direction  of  the 
muscle.  When  the  nerve  current  gets  to  the  muscle, 
it  causes  a  contraction  of  the  fibers  and  the  result  is  an  ac- 
tion. The  only  differences  in  action  which  are  found  are 
in  the  particular  muscles  which  are  contracting  and  the 
extent  to  which  they  contract.  It  may  be  concluded, 
then,  that  any  sensation  or  any  idea,  in  fact  any  stimulus, 
which  is  received  by  a  sense  organ  or  a  sensory  region 
of  the  brain  will  result  in  movement. 

These  movements  are,  however,  of  different  sorts. 
The  following  classification  is  frequently  given : 


1.  Automatic  movements. 

2.  Reflex. 
Instinctive. 
Habitual. 
Random  or  spontaneous. 


These  five  types  of  movement  are  the  only  ones  of 
which  the  human  being  is  capable.  The  first  three 
classes  are  inherited,  the  fourth  is  acquired,  and  the  last 


/) 


A 

TRIAL 
CAKE 


ot 


Pears'  Soap 


(UNSCENTED> 


IwilHiJ  br  ■•  ^^      to   CMW   tW 
«■  nccipt  of       I         nrt  if  iJIh 


■::i 


Everyone  knows  PEARS 

— knows  it  as  the  world's 

most  famous  soap — the  soap 

of   refinement  for  more  than   a 

century.     We    want    everyone    to 

know  PEARS  by  actual  use— to   realize  fully 

ail   the   exquisite    charm    of    this    delightful    soap. 

Wc  offer  now  this  opportunity  to  try  PEARS  at  our  expense 
because   we    are   so   sure   that  the   use   of   this  trial  cake  will 
form  a  permanent  habit.      Once  you  know  the  real  pleasure  of 

Pears' Soap 

^how  refreshing  is  its  absolute  purity — how  delightfully  beneficial 
:its  effect  on  the  skin — how  matchless  for  the  complexion — PEARS 
[will  become  as  essential  a  part  of  your  daily  life  as  the  bathing  itself. 

You  will  be  delighted  also  to  learn  the  economy  of  PEARS  both  in 

|its  low  cost  and  unusual  lasting  quality.    Pears  is  all  soap — all  pure — 

!there  is  absolutely  no  waste — it  lasts  much  longer  than  ordinary  soap. 
I  '  _  '     .   *^ 

'It  is  the  finest  soap  possible  to  produce  at  any  price— yet  the 
^unscented  is  sold  everywhere  at  not  over  15c  a  cake. 

'  A.  &  F.  PEARS.  Ltd. 

77(<'   larr/egt   wtinn/ncfKrerni  of  high  grade 
tuiUt  aoapa  in  the  uvrld. 

Dvnvt  tmm  thf*  OKxirtunitr  to  bring  th«  piMiurc  of  PEARS'  SOAP  Into  jrour  lUitr  lif«.    Sand  jraar 
miirti  %jm—umeio»int  *c  In  »t«my«  to  WAtTER  JANVIER.  '.'  S.  Agwt.  4tS  Caaal  St..  NMr  Ywk Qtr. 

Fig.  XIX 


i  <| 


ACTION 


279 


1 1  "'''I 


'IIMii^ 


A 


»i. 


IS  SO  vague  and  diffuse  that  it  is  difficult  to  say  much 
about  it.  However,  it  is  made  possible  by  the  inter- 
comiection  of  the  sensory  and  motor  neurones  in  a  very 
general  way. 

While  it  is  very  difficult  to  point  out  any  hard  and  fast 
hnes  of  division  between  the  various  types  of  actions, 
certam  characteristics  have  been  distinguished.  One 
system  of  classification  takes  account  of  the  following 
characteristics.  The  automatic  movements  are  those 
of  the  internal  organs,  the  activities  of  which  are  ab- 
solutely essential  if  Kfe  is  to  go  on  at  all,  such  as  the 
heartbeat,  breathing,  the  peristaltic  motion  of  the  in- 
testmes,  etc.  These  actions  are  supposed  to  be  largely 
if  not  entirely,  controUed  by  the  sympathetic  nervous 
system.  Since  they  are  of  Kttle  practical  importance 
for  the  advertismg  man  as  an  advertiser,  they  may  be 
practically  omitted  from  further  discussion. 

The  reflex  acts  are  those  responses  to  relatively  simple 
stimuli  which  are  essential  for  the  welfare  of  the  other 
structures  of  the  body.  Such  an  act  depends  upon  an 
inherited  pathway  in  the  nervous  system.  In  the  case  of 
the  reflex,  a  definite  stimulus  caUs  out  a  definite  and 
relatively  fixed  response. 

The  instinctive  movement,  which  also  depends  upon 
an  mhented  pathway  in  the  nervous  system,  is  a  rela- 
tively complex  response  to  a  relatively  complex  situation. 
It  has  sometimes  been  said  that  the  instinct  is  nothing 
but  a  chain  or  series  of  reflex  actions  that  succeed  each 
other  m  a  regular  and  definite  order.  All  three  of  these 
classes  of  movements  appear  to  be  purposive,  but  could 
not  actually  be  so,  for  the  action  is  performed  in  a  rela- 
tively adequate  way  without  previous  experience. 

The  habit  is  different  from  the  instinct  mainly  in  the 
fact  that  It  represents  an  actual  acquisition  on  the  part 
of  the  mdividual,  not  being  inherited  and  demanding 
a  considerable  amount  of  training  for  its  perfection 


■:|: 


)i 


n 


1  ■ 


I         *  J 


I 


i 


■I 


280     ADVERTISING  AND   ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

The  random  or  spontaneous  movements  are  those  which 
result  when  the  stimuli  are  of  such  a  nature  that  there 
is  no  inherited  or  acquired  pathway  over  which  they  may 
go  to  certain  definite  muscles.  Since  nerve  energy  is 
the  result  of  every  stimulation,  it  must  get  out  some- 
where, so  consequently  it  overflows  to  a  large  number  of 
muscles,  causing  indefinite  and  purposeless  contractions. 
These  movements  are  important  mainly  for  the  reason 
that  from  them  many  of  our  habits  are  developed. 

A  classification  of  the  same  kinds  of  movements  may 
be  placed  on  another  basis,  the  situation  which  calls  out 
the  movement.  It  has  been  stated  that  every  movement 
is  called  out  either  directly  or  indirectly  by  some  object 
in  the  environment,  and  that  most  movements  have 
a  preservative  function.  Growing  out  of  the  relation 
between  the  individual  and  his  environment,  there  are 
many  constantly  occurring  situations  which  demand  a 
comparatively  unvarying  type  of  response.  Since  they 
happen  with  such  invariability  and  the  movement  is  so 
definitely  fixed,  the  movements  have  been  biologically 
implanted  in  each  individual  of  each  species  of  vertebrate 
at  least.  It  would  be  a  mental  waste  to  have  them  con- 
trolled by  consciousness,  for  they  are  practically  mechani- 
cal. Under  this  group  may  be  put  the  first  class  named 
above,  the  automatic  movements,  such  responses  as 
those  involved  in  digestion,  circulation,  respiration,  and 

the  like. 

Certain  other  movements,  those  of  the  reflex  type,  are 
called  forth  by  situations  which  recur  with  very  great 
frequency,  but  not  so  often  as  the  first  type.  They 
are,  however,  produced  by  situations  which  occur  with 
very  great  frequency  in  the  Ufe  of  each  individual  in 
the  species.  Certain  acts  of  adjustment  of  a  relatively 
simple  nature  are  necessary  to  put  the  individual  into 
greater  harmony  with  his  environment.  The  necessity 
for  these  actions  is  so  great  and  the  occasion  for  them 


a 


ACTION 


281 


appears  so  often  that  it  would  be  a  mental  waste  to  have 
them  controlled  by  consciousness ;  we  inherit  connections 
in  the  nervous  system  which  will  provide  for  the  move- 
ment. 

Certain  other  movements  which  occur  with  still  less 
frequency  are  called  instinctive.  These  are  the  responses 
to  situations  which  occur  with  relative  infrequency  in 
the  history  of  the  individual  and  the  race,  but  which  still 
do  happen  often  enough  and  are  important  enough  to 
demand  a  relatively  constant  type  of  response  before 
traming  can  step  m  to  handle  the  situation.  For  these 
movements  there  is  developed  also  in  a  biological  way 
a  path  in  the  nervous  system  which  is  capable  of  causing 
the  movement  to  take  place  in  response  to  certain  stimula- 
tions coming  in  from  the  outside  world.  In  each  of 
these  three  types  of  movement  the  response  is  determined 
in  its  character.  A  stimulus  is  received  and  the  movement 
results  without  thought,  a  movement  which  on  the  aver- 
age is  the  correct  one  under  the  circumstances. 

Sharply  opposed  to  the  above  types  is  habit.  Habits 
are  developed  by  individuals  to  take  care  of  those 
situations  which  occur  to  any  given  race  with  relative 
infrequency,  but  which  confront  certain  individuals 
with  great  regularity.  It  would  obviously  be  a  biologi- 
cal waste  to  implant  instincts  in  all  to  meet  situations 
which  do  not  confront  all.  Habits  consequently  repre- 
sent the  contribution  of  each  individual  to  his  own  wel- 
fare. 

Random  or  spontaneous  acts  result  when  the  individual 
is  confronted  with  a  situation  which  is  met  but  seldom 
by  any  race  or  by  any  individual.  Should  conditions 
cause  the  situation  to  appear  often,  a  habit  is  developed 
which  is  capable  of  meeting  the  situation. 

Any  stimulus  coming  in  from  the  outside  world  and 
affecting  a  sense  organ  will,  then,  produce  one  or  more  of 
these  five  types  of  movement.    Which  kind  or  kinds 


m\\ 


fi 


282     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

are  produced  will  depend  upon  the  entire  individual 
and  racial  history  of  the  individual,  but  some  kind  will 
certainly  result. 

It  has  been  seen  that  each  type  of  movement  is  called 
out  by  a  definite  situation  or  stimulus.  This  means  that 
for  each  person  there  are  relatively  definite  expressive 
movements  which  result  from  the  situations  which  occur 
any  considerable  number  of  times.  From  this  point  of 
view,  it  may  be  said  that  the  stimulus  determines  the 
kind  of  response  which  will  be  given  to  it.  In  process  of 
time  the  individual  has  developed  habits  for  meeting 
most  of  the  practical  situations  of  life,  and  his  attitude 
towards  these  situations  is  determined  by  the  habits 
which  he  has  developed.  The  result  is  that  in  a  familiar 
situation  the  action  results  with  little  or  no  definite 
thought,  being  rather  in  terms  of  habit,  or  possibly  in- 
stinct. 

Such  an  action,  which  takes  place  immediately  and 
imreflectively  upon  the  presentation  of  some  stimulus, 
is  called  either  sensori-motor  or  ideo-motor  action; 
sensori-motor,  if  in  response  to  an  external  object,  ideo- 
motor,  if  in  response  to  an  idea.  In  these  cases  the 
stimulus  calls  out  an  habitual  response.  Very  many 
of  our  daily  actions  are  of  this  type.  We  think  of 
going  to  lunch  and  inamediately  the  whole  process  starts. 
We  get  up,  wash  our  hands,  put  on  hat  and  coat,  go 
down  stairs  or  wait  for  the  elevator,  go  out  on  the  street, 
walk  along  turning  the  customary  comers,  and  so  on,  the 
whole  process  being  very  complex  and  all  started  by 
the  simple  idea  of  lunch.  Ajiy  other  familiar  idea 
which  we  have  will  tend  to  be  realized  in  the  same  general 
way.  The  sight  of  familiar  implements  likewise  calls 
out  the  movements  which  are  habitually  made  with  them. 

As  a  subdivision  under  sensori-motor  and  ideo-motor 
action  may  be  mentioned  action  in  response  to  suggestion. 
Hie  only  reason  for  the  subdivision  is  that  in  action  in 


U 


ACTION 


283 


response  to  suggestion,  the  idea  upon  which  we  act  is 
not  supplied  by  our  own  mental  endeavors,  but  is  pre- 
sented to  us  from  some  external  source.  In  the  example 
given  above,  if  we  think  without  any  outside  influence 
of  going  to  lunch,  we  have  a  case  of  ideo-motor  action. 
Should  somebody  ask  if  it  isn't  time  to  go  to  lunch,  or 
call  up  to  make  a  luncheon  appointment,  we  have  action 
in  response  to  suggestion.  There  is  no  difference  in 
the  action  which  results;  the  only  difference  is  in  the 
source  of  the  idea.  The  suggestion  is  a  purely  mental 
affair ;  the  action  resulting  from  it  may  be  called  imita- 
tion. 

Imitation  may  be  considered  as  the  tendency  to  act, 
or  think,  or  feel  like  somebody  else.  We  do  not  imitate 
all  persons;  but  we  do  tend  to  imitate  those  who  are 
superior  to  us  in  some  way,  provided  that  we  like  that 
kind  of  superiority. 

Before  taking  up  in  detail  the  applications  to  advertis- 
ing, it  is  necessary  to  deal  with  another  problem,  viz., 
how  it  is  possible  to  make  a  movement  at  the  time  that 
we  desire  to  make  it.  According  to  psychological  con- 
vention, there  are  at  least  three  processes  which  must 
be  mentioned  as  playing  a  part.  These  are  resident 
sensations  and  images,  remote  sensations  and  images, 
and  intention.  It  was  pointed  out  in  the  chapter  on 
association  that  when  two  regions  of  the  brain  are  active 
together  or  in  immediate  succession,  they  tend  to  become 
associated  or  connected.  Any  movement  of  the  volun- 
tary muscles  is  accompanied  or  followed  by  kinaesthetic 
or  muscular  sensations.  Consequently,  the  motor  region 
of  the  brain  and  the  kinaesthetic  region  are  active  to- 
gether, and  by  the  above  principle  should  be  connected. 
The  connection  is  not  between  any  kinaesthetic  region 
and  any  motor  region,  but  since  the  particular  kind  of 
movement  involves  a  certain  definite  cortical  region 
and  results  in  certain  definite  sensations  coming  from 


i 


.1    ! 

m 

I, ill 


}■' 


284     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

the  muscles  which  are  active,  it  is  these  two  definite 
regions  of  the  cortex  which  become  associated.  Any 
nerve  current  which  will  in  any  way  get  into  this  par- 
ticular kinaesthetic  region  will  tend  to  go  over  to  the 
motor  region  connected  with  it,  thereby  arousing  the 
movement  which  originally  gave  rise  to  the  kinaesthetic 
sensations  which  are  remembered  and  recalled.  Con- 
sequently, one  of  the  ways  of  initiating  a  movement  is 
by  thinking  of  how  that  movement  would  feel.  Once 
the  kinaesthetic  images  are  aroused,  the  movement  will 
follow  tmless  held  in  check  by  some  other  cause. 

These  sensations  and  the  ideas  which  are  rearoused 
from  them  are  called  the  resident  sensations  and  images. 

In  addition  to  the  kinaesthetic  sensations  which  ac- 
company a  movement,  there  are  usually  other  sensa- 
tions simultaneously  present,  for  it  is  quite  possible  that 
the  moving  member  may  be  seen  or  heard.  When 
rearoused,  these  sensations  appear  in  the  form  of  visual 
and  auditory  images.  These  groups  are  called  the  remote 
sensations  and  images,  and  they  are  cues  to  action  for 
exactly  the  same  reason  that  the  resident  sensations  and 
images  are.  The  practically  simultaneous  action  of  the 
motor  region  of  the  cortex  and  the  visual  region,  for 
example,  will  cause  an  association  to  be  formed  between 
them,  so  that  in  order  to  start  a  movement  of  any  sort, 
it  is  only  necessary  to  think  of  how  the  movement  looks. 

Likewise,  certain  other  groups  of  sensations  and  images 
which  are  even  more  remote  may  become  the  cause  of 
the  movement.  Anything  which  habitually  is  linked  up 
with  the  movement  may  be  sufficient  to  start  it  going. 
An  idea  of  the  result  of  the  movement,  the  place  to  which 
the  movement  will  take  one,  any  idea  of  that  sort  which 
has  been  constantly  associated  with  the  movement  is 
sufficient  to  start  it  going,  provided  always  that  it  is  not 
checked  by  some  other  cause. 

In  order  that  the  movement  shall  result,  however,  it 


ACTION 


28s 


is  necessary  that  one  have  the  intention  to  move.  The 
intention,  or  fiat,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  is  nothing 
more  than  the  mental  assent  that  the  movement  shall 
take  place.  Provided  this  is  present,  the  movement  will 
result  if  the  remote  or  resident  sensations  are  present, 
and  if  the  movement  is  one  which  is  in  the  repertoire  of 
the  individual. 

One  of  the  characteristic  situations  in  which  movement 
does  not  result  is  when  there  is  an  option  of  doing  two 
opposed  things  at  the  same  time.  Only  one  can  be  done, 
and  it  is  necessary  to  choose  which  of  the  two  shall  be 
carried  out.  This  problem  involves  the  whole  mechan- 
ism of  deUberation  and  choice.  The  process  may  be 
briefly  sketched  as  follows.  It  has  been  noted  above  that 
every  sensation  and  idea  which  we  have  has  a  certain 
tendency  to  produce  movement.  This  may  be  called 
popularly  the  "motive  power"  of  the  sensation  or  idea. 
Different  ideas  will  then  have  different  motive  powers, 
one  producing  sHght  action  and  another  much  more  in- 
tense or  enduring  movement.  If  two  opposed  ideas  of 
this  sort  are  in  consciousness  together,  the  result  is  ob- 
vious ;  the  idea  with  the  greater  motive  power  conquers 
the  other  and  the  resulting  movement  is  in  terms  of  the 
stronger  idea.  There  is  very  httle  thought  in  connection 
with  the  process;  it  simply  solves  itself  after  a  short 
check.  Where  the  two  ideas  are  of  more  nearly  equal 
strength,  however,  a  much  more  laborious  process  re- 
sults. Each  idea  calls  up  many  of  the  possible  associates, 
so  that  instead  of  having  only  one  idea  on  each  side,  we 
have  a  relatively  complex  group.  Each  member  of  the 
complex  group  has  a  motive  power  of  its  own,  and  because 
of  this,  each  complex  may  be  thought  of  as  possessing 
a  motive  power  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  motive  powers 
of  the  ideas  which  make  up  the  complex.  After  this 
process  has  gone  on  for  some  time,  one  group  of  ideas 
will  be  found  to  have  outweighed  the  other,  and  the 


II 


'NI: 


286     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

action  will  result  in  terms  of  the  group  having  the  greatest 
amount  of  motive  power.  We  have  then  decided  and 
the  action  results. 

The  factors  which  control  the  motive  power  of  the 
various  ideas  are  those  which  serve  as  the  conditions 
of  attention.  It  will  be  remembered  that  there  were 
two  sorts  of  these,  the  objective  and  the  subjective. 
In  the  objective  group  were  such  conditions  as  size, 
intensity,  quality,  and  duration  of  stimulus.  These 
have  a  certain  influence  upon  the  production  of  the 
movement. 

The  effect  of  the  objective  factors  of  a  stimulus  in 
producing  action  has  been  clearly  worked  out  by  Froe- 
berg,^  who  determined  the  effect  of  the  size,  intensity, 
and  duration  of  stimuli  upon  the  reaction  time.  The 
subject  was  instructed  to  make  a  definite  movement  as 
soon  as  he  saw  the  stimulus,  and  the  time  between  the 
appearance  of  the  stimulus  and  the  beginning  of  the 
movement  was  measured  in  units  of  .001  second,  or 
sigma. 

This  type  of  experiment  can  be  applied  to  advertising, 
for  it  represents  the  condition  of  those  who  have  made 
up  their  minds  to  buy  sometime.  The  assent  to  the 
movement  is  there,  but  the  movement  has  not  as  yet  been 
made.  This  attitude  corresponds  quite  definitely  to 
that  of  the  subject  in  the  reaction  time  experiment,  for 
he  has  agreed  mentally  to  make  the  movement  and  awaits 
only  the  occasion  for  doing  so. 

In  determining  the  effect  of  the  intensity  of  the 
stimulus  on  the  time  of  reaction,  Froeberg  used  different 
shades  of  gray,  starting  with  white,  the  intensity  of  which 
was  called  100.  Other  grays  were  found  which  had, 
as  compared  with  the  white,  intensities  of  56,  25,  16, 
and  10.  He  gives  4  tables,  showing  a  total  of  8000 
reactions.    The  results  follow: 

*  Froeberg,  The  Archives  of  Psychology,  No.  8. 


ACTION 


287 


Reaction 

Intensity  of  Stimttlus 

TnfE  OF 

100 

86 

as 

16 

xo 

R 
W 
R 
W 

179.0 
172. 1 
191. 1 

173-4 

183.2 
176.0 
194.2 

175-9 

186.2 

1 79- 1 
197.1 

180.5 

188.6 
181.6 
201.5 

183.4 

191.6 
184.2 
208.0 
185.0 

These  results  show  very  clearly  indeed  that  as  the  in- 
tensity of  the  stimulus  increases,  the  reaction  time  de- 
creases.   This  is  shown  graphically  in  Fig.  XX.    Put 


26 

Fig.  XX 


T" 

66 

INTENSITY 

Curve  showing  the  decrease  in  reaction  time  which  results  from 
increasing  the  intensity  of  the  stimulus. 


1( 


more  definitely,  the  results  indicate  that  as  the  time  of 
reaction  increases  arithmetically,  the  intensity  of  the 
stimulus  decreases  geometrically. 


u  ifiitt 


2g8     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

In  determining  the  effect  of  the  size  of  the  stimulus 
upon  the  reaction  time,  five  sizes  were  used :  48,  24,  12, 
6,  and  3  nrni.  square  respectively  and  a  total  of  5625 
reactions  made.    The  results  are  put  in  tabular  form : 


Reaction 

Size  or  Stimulus 

Time  op 

48 

M 

la 

6 

3 

R 
W 

m 

F 

179.0 
172. 1 
177.1 
162.5 

181.9 

173-2 
181. 1 
161. 7 

184.2 
170.4 
184.2 
165.1 

188.3 
171.7 
187. 1 
169.0 

194.6 
175-9 
193-7 
175-4 

These  results  again  show  that  as  the  stimulus  increases 
in  size,  the  reaction  time  decreases.  Within  certain 
limits,  which  need  not  be  discussed  here,  as  the  stimulus 
increases  in  a  geometrical  progression,  the  reaction  time 
decreases  in  an  arithmetical  progression.  This  result 
is  in  striking  harmony  with  those  obtained  in  the  ex- 
periments on  the  attention  value  of  size  and  the  memory 
value  of  size.  It  was  found  that  the  two  latter  tendencies 
followed  a  root  curve,  whereas  the  action  tendency 
follows  a  logarithmic  curve.  The  differences  found  in 
the  reaction  experiment  are  slight,  as  would  be  expected, 
for  the  subject  was  instructed  to  make  the  movement 
as  soon  as  he  could,  and  wide  variations  are  therefore 
very  improbable.  The  interesting  and  striking  fact  is 
that  the  similarities  should  be  as  great  as  they  are. 

The  tendency  is  represented  graphically  in  Fig.  XXI. 

The  experiment  on  the  relation  between  the  time  of 
reaction  and  the  duration  of  the  stimulus  was  performed 
in  much  the  same  way,  5  different  durations  being  used, 
as  follows:  48,  24, 12,  6,  and  3  sigma,  or  thousandths  of 
a  second.    The  results  are  given  below  in  sigma : 


ACTION 

289 

Reaction 
Tnf  F  nv 

Duration  oe  Stimulus 

48 

34 

la 

6 

3 

R 
W 

191.1 
173-4 

193-5 
175-2 

196.4 
177-4 

198.7 
179.2 

200.6 
180.7 

The  results  are  again  shown  in  curves  in  Fig.  XXII. 
If  the  irregularities  are  disregarded  as  being  due  to 
extraneous  conditions,  the  same  approximate  law  may 


SIZE 


Fig.  XXI.  —  Curves  showing  the  decrease  in  reaction  time  which  results  from 

increasing  the  size  of  the  stimulus. 

be  postulated  as  in  the  previous  cases ;  that  as  the  dura- 
tion of  the  stimulus  increases  in  geometrical  ratio,  the 
time  of  reaction  decreases  in  arithmetical  progression. 

The  subjective  group  is  far  more  important,  however. 
In  this  class  we  have  all  of  the  inherited  and  acquired 
interests  of  the  person,  the  harmony  between  the  present 


r 


290     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

attitude  and  the  desirability  of  the  movement  and  the 
movement  judged  in  terms  of  what  may  be  called  the 
goal  ideal  of  the  person.  As  the  attitude  or  intention  of 
the  person  shifts  from  time  to  time  there  will  be  a  corre- 
sponding shift  in  the  motive  powers  of  the  various  ideas 
which  may  result  in  movement. 

James  gives  five  methods  of  deciding  or  choosing,  which 
will  be  quoted.  "The  first  method  may  be  called  the 
reasonable  type.  It  is  that  of  those  cases  in  which  the 
arguments  for  and  against  a  given  course  seem  gradually 


Fig.  XXII.  —  Curves  showing  the  decrease  in  reaction  time  which  results  from 

increasing  the  duration  of  the  stimulus. 

and  almost  insensibly  to  settle  themselves  in  the  mind 
and  to  the  end  by  leaving  a  clear  balance  in  favor  of  one 
alternative,  which  alternative  we  then  adopt  without 
effort  or  constraint.  .  .  .  The  conclusive  reason  for  the 
decision  in  these  cases  usually  is  the  discovery  that  we  can 
refer  the  case  to  a  class  upon  which  we  are  accustomed 
to  act  unhesitatingly  in  a  certain  stereotyped  way.  .  .  . 
The  moment  we  hit  upon  a  conception  which  lets  us 
apply  some  principle  of  action  which  is  a  fixed  and  stable 
part  of  our  Ego,  our  state  of  doubt  is  at  an  end.  Persons 
of  authority,  who  have  to  make  many  decisions  in  the 
day,  carry  with  them  a  set  of  heads  of  classifications, 


ACTION 


291 


each  bearing  its  volitional  consequence,  and  under  these 
they  seek  as  far  as  possible  to  range  each  new  emergency 
as  it  occurs.  It  is  where  the  emergency  belongs  to  a 
species  without  precedent,  to  which  consequently  no 
cut-and-dried  maxim  will  apply,  that  we  feel  most  at  a 
loss,  and  are  distressed  at  the  indeterminateness  of  our 
task.  As  soon,  however,  as  we  see  our  way  to  a  familiar 
classification,  we  are  at  ease  again.  .  .  . 

**The  'reasonable'  character  is  one  who  has  a  store  of 
stable  and  worthy  ends,  and  who  does  not  decide  about 
any  action  till  he  has  cahnly  ascertained  whether  it 
be  ministerial  or  detrimental  to  any  one  of  these.  In 
the  next  two  types  of  decision,  the  final  fiat  comes 
before  the  evidence  is  all  'in.'  It  often  happens  that  no 
paramount  and  authoritative  reason  for  either  course  will 
come.  Either  seems  a  good,  and  there  is  no  umpire  to 
decide  which  should  yield  its  place  to  the  other.  We 
grow  tired  of  long  hesitation  and  inconclusiveness,  and 
the  hour  may  come  when  we  feel  that  even  a  bad  de- 
cision is  better  than  no  decision  at  all.  Under  these  con- 
ditions it  will  often  happen  that  some  accidental  cir- 
cumstance, supervening  at  a  particular  moment  upon  our 
mental  weariness,  will  upset  the  balance  in  the  direction 
of  one  of  the  alternatives,  to  which  we  then  feel  ourselves 
committed,  although  an  opposite  accident  at  the  same 
time  might  have  produced  the  opposite  result. 

*'In  the  second  type  our  feeling  is  to  a  great  extent 
that  of  letting  ourselves  drift  with  a  certain  indifferent 
acquiescence  in  a  direction  accidentally  determined 
from  without,  with  the  conviction  that,  after  all,  we  might 
as  well  stand  by  this  course  as  by  the  other,  and  that 
things  are  in  any  event  sure  to  turn  out  sufficiently  right. 

"£i  the  third  type  the  determination  seems  equally 
accidental,  but  comes  from  within,  and  not  from  without. 
It  often  happens,  when  the  absence  of  imperative  prin- 
ciples is  perplexing  and  suspense  distracting,  that  we 


\ 


H 


m 


w 


1 

'|H 

J 

f 

1    r 
1 

^_  .  i^U    .. 

292     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

find  ourselves  acting,  as  it  were,  automatically,  and  as 
if  by  a  spontaneous  discharge  of  our  nerves,  in  the  direc- 
tion of  one  of  the  horns  of  the  dilemma.  But  so  exciting 
is  this  sense  of  motion  after  our  intolerable  pent-up 
state  that  we  eagerly  throw  ourselves  into  it.  *  Forward 
now!'  we  inwardly  cry,  'though  the  heavens  fall.' 

"There  is  sl  fourth  form  of  decision,  which  often  ends 
deliberations  as  suddenly  as  the  third  form  does.  It 
comes  when,  in  consequence  of  some  outer  experience 
or  some  inexplicable  inward  change,  we  suddenly  pass 
from  the  easy  and  careless  to  the  sober  and  strenuous  mood, 
or  possibly  the  other  way.  The  whole  scale  of  values 
of  our  motives  and  impulses  then  undergoes  a  change 
like  that  which  a  change  of  the  observer's  level  produces 
on  a  view.  The  most  sobering  possible  agents  are  ob- 
jects of  grief  and  fear.  When  one  of  these  affects  us,  all 
'Ught  fantastic'  notions  lose  their  motive  power,  all 
solemn  ones  find  theirs  multiplied  many  fold.  The  con- 
sequence is  an  instant  abandonment  of  the  more  trivial 
projects  with  which  we  have  been  dallying,  and  an  in- 
stant practical  acceptance  of  the  more  grim  and  earnest 
alternative  which  till  then  could  not  extort  our  mind's 
consent.  .  .  .  The  character  abruptly  rises  to  another 
'level,'  and  deliberation  comes  to  an  immediate  end. 

"In  the  fifth  and  final  type  of  decision,  the  feeling  that 
the  evidence  is  all  in,  and  that  reason  has  balanced  the 
books,  may  be  either  present  or  absent.  But  in  either 
case  we  feel,  in  deciding,  as  if  we  ourselves  by  our  own 
willful  act  inclined  the  beam :  in  the  former  case  by  adding 
our  living  efforts  to  the  weight  of  the  logical  reason 
which,  taken  alone,  seems  powerless  to  make  the  act 
discharge ;  in  the  latter  by  a  kind  of  creative  contribu- 
tion of  something  instead  of  a  reason  which  does  a  reason's 
work.  The  slow  dead  heave  of  the  will  that  is  felt  in 
these  instances  makes  a  class  of  them  altogether  differ- 
ent subjectively  from  all  the  four  preceding  classes.    If 


ACTION 


293 


examined  closely,  its  chief  difference  appears  to  be  that 
in  these  cases  the  mind  at  the  moment  of  deciding  on  the 
triumphant  alternative  dropped  the  other  one  wholly 
or  nearly  out  of  sight,  whereas  here  both  alternatives 
are  steadily  held  in  view,  and  in  the  very  act  of  murdering 
the  vanquished  possibility  the  chooser  realizes  how  much 
in  that  instant  he  is  making  himself  lose."  ^ 

^  It  may  be  objected  that  the  discussion  which  has  been 
given  of  choice  is  open  to  objection,  for  if  ideas  do  pro- 
duce movement,  we  ought  to  do  now  one  of  the  possi- 
bilities and  now  another.     For  the  thought  of  doing  one 
thing  ought  to  lead  to  the  doing  of  that  thing  and  the 
thought  of  the  other,  when  it  is  attended  to,  in  turn, 
ought^  to  lead  to  the  doing  of  the  other.     It  is  m  this 
situation  that  the  intention  to  move  plays  an  important 
part,  for  as  long  as  we  realize  that  we  are  still  trying  to 
decide,  no  expressive  movement  results,  but  when  our 
minds  are  made  up,  the  movement  results  without  hesi- 
tation.    To  explain  this,  it  is  necessary  to  call  attention 
again  to  a  principle  which  was  discussed  in  the  chapter 
on  memory.    There  it  was  shown  that  the  intention  or 
attitude  of  the  learner  towards  the  material  decided 
whether  or  not  it  would  be  learned.     The  principle 
involved  was  that  of  the  relative  resistance  of  synapses. 
The  same  principle  may  be  said  to  apply  here.     If  the 
individual  is  in  the  deliberating  attitude,  it  will  follow 
that  the  resistance  of  the  synapses  leading  to  the  associa- 
tion regions,  the  other  sensory  regions,  and  so  on  will  be 
decreased,  whereas,  under  these  circumstances,  the  re- 
sistance of  the  synapses  leading  to  the  motor  region  will 
be  increased.     Consequently,  the  nervous  energy  will 
find  difficulty  in  getting  to  the  motor  region  of  the 
cortex  and  instigating  movement,  but  will  find  it  easy  to 
wander  about  in  the  sensory  and  association  regions, 
arousing  other  ideas  as  it  goes.    When  the  attitude  of 

1  James,  "Principles  of  Psychology,"  Vol.  II,  pages  531-534. 


Li 


/ 


294     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

the  person  changes,  owing  to  the  fact  that  he  has  decided, 
and  realizes  that  further  thought  would  be  a  waste,  the 
relative  resistance  of  the  synapses  is  again  changed  by 
the  shift  in  attitude.  The  pathways  leading  through  the 
assoaation  regions  now  become  relatively  blocked  and 
the  tracts  leading  to  the  motor  regions  become  in  turn 
more  pervious.  The  result  is  that  the  nerve  current, 
which  has  been  in  the  sensory  and  association  regions,' 
arousing  ideas  of  the  movement,  the  results  of  the  move- 
ment, and  the  like,  flows  over  into  a  definite  region  of  the 
motor  part  of  the  cortex  and  a  movement  results,  carry- 
ing out  or  expressing  the  ideas  which  were  in  mind  at  the 
tune. 

Several  of  the  other  factors  which  lead  to  a  lack  of 
defimte  movement  when  a  stimulus  is  presented  to  the 
mdividual  wiU  now  be  considered.    Every  voluntary 
movement  is  for  the  accomplishment  of  some  end ;   it 
IS  performed  because  the  person  who  makes  the  move- 
ment hopes  to  accompHsh  by  it  something  that  he 
desires.    If  the  desired  end  itself  is  not  definitely  in  mind 
the  movement  wiU  not  result.    We  cannot  properly  de- 
fine certain  ends,  either  because  they  are  absolutely 
unknown,  or  because  there  is  not  enough  mental  energy 
resulting  from  the  stimulus  to  carry  the  processes  on. 
In  the  second  place,  the  proper  means  to  accomplish  the 
end  may  be  either  unknown  or  may  be  known  only 
vaguely.    The  end  may  be  weU  defined  but  we  do  not 
know  what  to  do  to  realize  it.    Hence  there  is  necessarily 
a  prolonged  period  of  mental  activity  in  search  of  the 
proper  means.    Or  again  there  is  a  lack  of  sufficient 
energy  to  carry  the  process  to  completion.     In  the  third 
place,  means  and  end  may  both  be  well  defined  and  well 
known,  but  the  means  may  involve  a  prolonged  period 
of  activity  and  there  is  a  lack  of  energy  to  carry  the 
process  to  completion.    In  the  fourth  place,  the  end  or 
motive  may  be  too  weak  to  produce  a  voHtional  act 


ACTION 


295 


especially  when  the  end  is  remote  or  vague.  In  these 
cases,  the  problem  is  to  find  some  additional  energy  or 
motive  power  to  carry  the  mental  activity  to  completion. 
The  following  possibilities  have  been  suggested : 

1.  In  the  case  of  remote  and  vague  ends,  or  motives, 
the  initial  energy  resulting  from  the  recognition  of  the 
means  and  ends  may  be  utilized  in  working  out  the  end 
in  detail  or  in  more  vivid  imagery.  By  imagination  we 
place  the  result  concretely  in  its  relationship  to  Kfe.  If 
we  can  imagine  or  get  another  to  imagine  some  of  the 
possible  benefits  which  will  accrue  to  him  from  the  doing 
of  the  required  thing,  if  we  can  make  him  see  the  advan- 
tages to  himself,  we  can  frequently  get  him  to  perform  the 
necessary  movements.  The  initial  motive  power  is 
sufficient  to  start  the  mental  process  in  this  direction 
and  it  thus  continually  gathers  energy  and  momentum. 
This  can  be  done  consciously  if  the  person  has  learned 
the  trick ;  likewise  it  can  be  practiced  on  another  person 
if  one  has  learned  how  to  do  it. 

2.  When  the  first  motive  is  especially  weak,  one  may 
voluntarily  seek  for  additional  motives.  The  initial 
energy  is  sufficient  to  start  the  process  going,  and  as  it 
continues  it  attempts  to  find  the  full  value  of  the  act 
in  reference  to  the  widest  and  most  complete  satisfac- 
tion of  life.  It  is  a  more  complete  definition  of  the 
end.  We  may  look  at  an  act  in  reference  to  the 
future,  from  every  standpoint  and  aspect,  and  should 
one  motive  be  insufficient,  we  still  may  value  the  act 
from  the  widest  standpoint.  It  is  really  getting  a 
broader  view  of  life,  a  wider  philosophy,  broader  princi- 
ples of  action. 

3.  When  either  the  end  or  the  means  needs  defining, 
or  the  activity  goes  over  some  time,  concentration  and 
fixation  of  attention  are  essential  to  the  process.  Atten- 
tion to  the  end  makes  it  more  clear  and  more  vivid.  But 
the  attention  tends  to  change  and  hence  the  process 


I 


i 


II 


iu 


296     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

would  stop  before  the  voluntary  act  was  completed  unless 
the  attention  was  kept  concentrated  on  the  work  in 
hand.  If  we  ask  how  we  keep  our  attention  concentrated 
the  answer  is  that  we  have  to  do  it  voluntarily.  But 
this  IS  explaining  wiU  power  as  voluntary  attention 
which  IS  nothing  but  explaining  it  in  terms  of  itself,  for 
will  is  voluntary  attention. 

^  How  do  we  voluntarily  control  attention  ?    It  is  done 
m  this  way.    We  cannot  voluntarily  concentrate  our 
attention  without  getting  more  energy.    The  voluntary 
concentration  of  the  attention  is  attained  by  a  motor 
adjustment  of  the  sense  organs  and  is  accompanied  by 
certam  other  kinds  of  movements  of  both  the  voluntary 
and  mvoluntary  muscles,  of  such  a  kind  that  it  brings 
back  a  sensory  stimulation.    This  sensory  stimulaUon 
releases  cortical  energy,  which  is  again  used  in  the  act. 
Ihe  mitial  energy  is  first  used  in  an  adjustive  movement, 
not  only  of  the  sense  organ  but  also  of  the  whole  body' 
and   these  movements  release   a   sensory   stimulation 
which  produces  or  releases  a  greater  amount  of  cortical 
energy  than  was  at  first  expended. 

We  are  now  in  a  position  to  apply  the  various  laws  of 
action  to  the  content  of  the  advertisement.     It  has  been 
customary  to  divide  the  appeals  into  two  types,  the  long 
arcuit  and  the  short  circuit.     By  the  short  circuit  appeal 
is  meant  one  which  will  tap  some  sensori-motor  or  ideo- 
motor  process  and  the  result  will  be  prompt  and  unre- 
flective  response.    When  the  long  circuit  appeal  is  used 
however,  it  is  admitted  that  there  are  other  like  commodi- 
ties on  the  market,  but  the  advantages  of  the  partic- 
ular one  adverrised  are  indicated  in  such  a  way  as  to 
swmg^  the  preference  and  eventually  the  choice  in  that 
direction.  ^  Either  a  piling  up  of  new  associations  or  the 
strengthening  of  the  older  ones  is  the  method  usuallv 
employed. 

The  short  circuit  response  must  necessarily  tap  either 


ACTION 


297 


an  instinctive  or  an  habitual  situation.  The  advertise- 
ment depending  upon  this  type  of  appeal  must  be  of  an 
article  for  which  a  need  is  already  felt.  If  the  individual 
has  a  long-standing  and  firmly  rooted  habit  of  satisfying 
the  need,  the  short  circuit  appeal  will  be  very  strong. 
Appeal  to  the  instincts  by  means  of  an  advertisement 
must  necessarily  be  much  weaker  than  the  actual  situa- 
tion would  be,  for  in  the  advertisement  the  situation  is 
only  pictured  or  described.  It  is  received  through  a 
distance  sense  and  then  only  in  a  modified  and  weakened 
form.  Consequently,  the  strength  of  the  response  will 
be  correspondingly  weakened.  The  instinctive  appeal 
is  a  capital  means  of  catching  the  attention,  but  it  is 
doubtful  if  it  is  as  likely  to  lead  to  the  desired  response 
as  the  appeal  to  the  more  habitual  situation. 

Some  of  the  devices  in  common  use  by  advertisers  to 
tap  sensori-motor  action — and  since  the  cue  to  the  actions 
comes  from  some  other  individual,  this  must  be  called 
action  due  to  suggestion  —  are  especially  interesting.  Of 
these  devices  the  ones  most  frequently  met  with  are  the 
direct  command,  the  return  coupon,  and  the  picture  of 
a  person  using  the  commodity. 

I.  The  efificiency  of  the  direct  command  depends  upon 
the  authority  which  lies  back  of  the  command.  We  are 
willing  to  take  commands  from  a  person  who  is  in  a  posi- 
tion superior  to  ours,  but  not  from  an  inferior.  In  the 
business  relation,  we  willingly  carry  out  the  orders 
of  those  over  us,  whereas  in  the  sport  relation  the  one 
who  previously  commanded  us  may  take  our  orders 
and  think  nothing  of  it.  It  all  depends  upon  the 
relative  superiority  of  the  two  individuals  in  the  two 
conditions.  However,  since  the  great  majority  of  us 
have  superiors  and  have  consequently  developed  the 
habit  of  obeying,  we  often  obey  orders  because  of  this 
habit  and  not  because  of  the  superiority  of  the  source 
of  them. 


11 


w 


298     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

.i}\'^  Ti  ^^7  "^^X  ""^  ^"""^^  ^^^^gS'  ^oo>  ^or  it  saves  us 
the  trouble  of  making  up  our  minds  and  throws  the  re-^ 
sponsibihty  upon  the  one  who  issues  the  order     There 
are,  however,  two  different  types  of  individuals,  those 
who  are  positively  suggestible  and  those  who  are  negati velv 
suggestible.     The  former  outnumber  the  latter,  though 
to  just  what  extent  cannot  be  stated  definitely     It  has 
been  the  experience  of  the  writer  that  of  the  persons 
who  are  experimented  upon  by  him  about  7  out  of  10 
are  positively  suggestible.    The  other  30  per  cent,  when 
mstmcted  to  do  a  certain  thing,  usually  react  in  the  oppo- 
site direction,  domg  anything  in  the  wide  world  except 
that  which  they  were  requested  to  do.    There  is  aroused 
in  them  a  spirit  of  antagonism  which  prevents  their 
cooperation  m  the  task  at  hand.    This  fact  makes  it  a 
somewhat  dangerous  device  to  use  in  advertising    for 
30  per  cent  of  the  readers  and  consequently  30  per  cent 
of  the  possible  prospects  are  repelled  by  the  direct  com- 
mand and  refuse  to  consider  the  advertisement  further 
It  may,  however,  be  very  efficient  in  inducing  the  other 
70  per  cent  to  action. 

By  properly  wording  the  command,  the  spirit  of  op- 
position may  be  removed  entirely.  Scott  ^  says,  ^'Such 
expression  as^ Use  Pears^  Soap'  is  not  as  suggestive  as 
Let  the  Gold  Dust  twms  do  your  work.'  The  first  is  a 
bald  command  and  as  such  has  a  certain  value,  but  the 
second  has  the  added  value  of  supplying  or  implying  a 
reason  for  obedience.  It  is  impUed  that  the  Gold  Dust 
twms  wm  save  you  labor,  and  so  the  command  is  supple- 
mented by  an  appeal  to  a  personal  interest."  The  addi- 
tion of  persuasion,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  ^^suasion  " 
to  a  command  in  an  advertisement  will  reenforce  the 
action-compelling  power. 

Four  other  examples  given  by  Scott  in  the  same 
cliapter  are  worth  considering.  They  are  — 

1  Scott,  W.  D.,  "The  Theory  of  Advertising,"  page  69. 


ACTION  299 

Be  an  Ad- Writer 

Learn  to  be  an  Ad- Writer 

Learn  to  Write  Advertisements 

Advertising  Writing  Taught 

Scott  concludes  that  the  first  three  are  superior  to  the 
fourth  and  he  undoubtedly  is  correct  in  his  statement. 
The  last  one  not  only  contains  no  command,  but  is 
awkwardly  phrased  as  well.  Considering  the  statements 
alone  and  not  taking  into  account  the  kind  of  type  and 
the  other  factors  of  the  display,  he  sKghtly  prefers  the 
third,  for  it  uses  the  full  word  advertisements  instead  of  the 
abbreviation  ad.  which  he  fears  might  be  misunderstood, 
or  not  understood  at  all.  In  terms  of  the  end  to  be  ac- 
complished, viz.,  writing  advertisements,  they  are  equally 
expHcit.  From  this  standpoint,  possibly  the  first  is 
superior,  for  it  does  not  suggest  in  any  way  the  trouble 
and  endless  hours  of  toil  which  are  necessary  before 
one  can  qualify  as  an  ad-writer.  It  carefully  omits 
this,  and  if  it  then  goes  on  to  show  the  high  salary 
which  such  an  accomplishment  brings,  it  is  especially 
strong.  It  reminds  one  of  George  Ade's  "Fables  in  Slang." 
The  young  woman  in  the  story  was  very  careful  to  give 
the  young  man  the  freedom  of  the  kitchen,  the  ice-box, 
and  the  pantry,  making  him  feel  very  comfortable  and 
think  how  pleasant  it  would  be  to  have  that  condition 
seven  days  a  week.  Of  course,  she  kept  all  notions  of 
expense  and  the  trouble  of  obtaining  provisions  care- 
fully in  the  background.  Likewise,  the  one  who  an- 
swered the  first  advertisement  would  know  nothing  of 
the  trouble  involved  until  after  he  had  enrolled  in  the 
course.  But  nowhere  is  there  a  suggestion  that  he  should 
enroll  in  any  course.  He  might  like  to  be  an  ad-writer, 
but  wonders  how  he  may  become  so.  The  second  and 
the  third  headlines  both  tell  him  how  this  may  be 
accomplished.     The  means   to   the   end   are   supphed 


i 


300     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

by  the  suggestion  that  he  learn  to  write  advertisements 
bo  aU  he  has  to  do  is  to  write  in  to  the  concern  and 
learn  how.  ^  The  writer  is  inclined  to  consider  that  the 
better''''^  ^s   the   best,  for  the  phraseology  is  much 

2.  The  picture  of  the  article  in  use  has  a  considerable 
senson-motor  power,  and  has  it  for  several  reasons.     In 
the  first  place,  it  suggests  that  other  persons  are  using 
the  commodity,  are  deriving  satisfaction  from  it     Be- 
cause of  our  imitative  tendency,  we  Hke  to  do  what  other 
people  are  doing,  especially  those  of  our  own  class  or 
condition  and  those  who  are  above  us  in  any  way     For 
this  reason,  the  picture  should  never  be  of  an  inferior 
person  or  of  a  person  in  a  lower  class.    This  brings  up 
the  question  whether  it  is  better  to  use  a  photograph  or 
a  drawing  of  the  person  using  the  commodity.    Manv 
advertising  men  will  believe  that  there  is  no  question 
at  all  here ;    that  the  photograph  has  its  uses  and  the 
drawmg  its  uses.     Undoubtedly    they   are   correct  in 
the  extreme  cases,  but  there  is  a  certain  class  of  com- 
modities which   might   be   illustrated   in   either  way 
Considermg  the  first  case,  it  is  obvious  that  if  one  desires 
to  convey  a  very  exact  impression  of  the  actual  appear- 
ance of  the  commodity,  a  photograph  will  do  it  much 
better  than  a  perspective  drawing.    If,  however,  the  ad- 
vertiser desires  to  idealize  the  commodity  somewhat,  the 
drawmg  is  considerably  better  than  the  photograph     In 
connection  with  the  advertisements  of  men's  clothes,  for 
example  the  tendency  a  few  years  ago  was  to  use  photo- 
graphs, for  they  showed  how  the  product  actually  looked 
as  worn  by  human  individuals.    In  more  recent  years 
smce  the  tendency  to  extreme  attenuation  of  body  to  be 
fashionable  has  set  in,  a  photograph  would  obviously  be 
of  no  use,  for  it  would  be  impossible  to  find  a  Hving 
human  bemg  whose  picture  would  show  the  required  type 
of  bodily  architecture.     Consequently,  drawings  are  a 


ACTION 


301 


necessity.  The  endeavor  is  to  create  an  ideal  tj^e  which 
shall  conform  to  the  standards  of  the  present  fashions, 
and  suggest  that  the  use  of  the  clothes  advertised  will 
give  the  wearer  the  desired  appearance. 

Where  there  is  no  situation  of  this  sort  to  be  confronted 
and  where  either  type  of  illustration  might  be  used,  it 
seems  that  the  photograph  should  have  a  slight  advantage 
over  the  drawing.  The  reason  is  that  a  photograph  must 
be  of  real  persons  whereas  a  drawing  need  not  be,  and 
the  result  is  that  we  are  somewhat  more  ready  to  imitate 
the  movements  involved  in  the  picture  than  in  the  draw- 
ing. The  following  experiment  tends  to  point  out  the 
superiority  of  photographs : 

The  experiment  consisted  in  showing  the  subject  a 
series  of  fourteen  advertisements,  seven  of  them  contain- 
ing photographs,  the  other  seven,  drawings.  After 
looking  the  entire  list  through,  the  subject  was  asked  to 
describe  each  advertisement  as  carefully  and  completely 
as  he  could.  Thirty-nine  men  and  seventy-one  women 
performed  the  experiment.  The  results  were  graded 
upon  five  points,  two  credits  being  given  if  the  name  of 
the  commodity  were  remembered,  one  point  each  for 
picture,  catch  phrase,  or  headline.    The  results  follow : 


Photos 

Grades 

Non-Photos 

Grades 

iEtna      .     .     . 
Kodak    .     .     . 
Swift .... 
Metro.    .    .    . 
Film-tank  .    . 
M.  Steam  .    . 
R.  E.  Co.    .    . 

517 

507 
400 

370 
538 
328 

303 

Arrow   .     . 
Vitralite     .     . 
Gold  Medal   . 
S.  T.  Clocks 
Gorham     .    . 
Tiffany .     . 
iEolian  .     . 

503 
292 

447 
189 

186 

415 
179 

2963 

2211 

4233 

315-9 

>ii' 


«4 


» 


302     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

tivT?n  fh?!^^  ^^'^*^  ^*  photographs  are  more  eflfec- 
drawings.    As  wiU  be  pointed  out  at  a  later  time,  there 

val^T'S'  \^"^  *=''"^'^^''°  ^''■''^^  the  m'emory 
value  of  advertisements  and  their  action-producing 
powers,  so  the  assertion  may  be  ventured  that  where  thl 

t^'^'a'^Sr    "  '*^"''''' ''  "^  '^  "''"  '^''^''' 
ntW  ^*^*,J^^t  we  do  tend  to  imitate  the  actions  of 
S  ^'^fi^.^  ^u^""^  suggested  by  pictures  of  others, 
has  a  definite  beanng  upon  the  obtaining  of  action 
i!lLT  .•     ^  movement  gives  rise  to  certain  kin- 

a^thetic  sensations  which  are  produced  by  the  movement. 

r^ukW  "fr  "''1°''"^'  ^^r  ^^"^  '^^^'  the  sensations 
resultmg  from  them  may  be  rearoused  in  the  form  of 

kinaesthetic  images.    As  was  pomted  out  earher,  these 

kmaesthetic  images  are  one  of  the  important  raes  to 

Sri^t  is''"'"  the  intention,  the 'movement  Jll 
result  f  It  is  one  which  is  m  our  repertoire.  For  the 
onnation  of  a  habit,  such  kin^thetic  sensation/ ^d 
unages  are  necessary,  so  it  should  follow  that  a  picture 
desired  to  bnng  out  such  an  action  by  imitation  wouW 
don  f.w'  ""  ^;e"^S  a  campaign.  In  such  a  situa 
Uon,  a  picture  of  a  person  buying  the  commodity,  taking 
It  home,  or  esaminmg  it  carefuUy  would  po^ibly  be 
more  effiaent  than  one  which  shows  the  coLodi^  £ 

h^f^.^\  ^'f  ^T  ''^«^  °^  the  campaign,  when^ 
habt  has  been  developed  for  the  product,  a  picture  of 
an  individual  using  the  commodity  may  weU  be  em' 
ployed,  for  after  the  habit  has  been  formed^  any  cue  which 
t„  hin?  fj;"^"^"t'y  associated  with  the  act  is  sufficient 

^rh.^!>.     •  ^''*'°°  ^^''"*-    ^'^  't  may  be  said  that  a 
picture  showmg  any  part  of  the  buying  or  using  process 
or  any  result  of  the  using,  wiU  be  ai  incentive  Kcdon 
The  use  of  a  mere  disembodied  hand,  holding  the  package 
or  reachmg  towards  the  goods,  is  psychotogicaUy  Sr 


ACTION 


303 


from  this  point  of  view,  for  it  does  not  give  a  sufficient 
cue  for  the  imitative  movements. 

Another  type  of  picture  which  acts  by  suggestion  is  the 
sort  which  shows  the  commodity  being  used  by  attractive 
people.  Such  a  picture,  in  addition  to  arousing  pleasing 
associations  which  add  charm,  luxury,  and  distinction 
as  connected  with  the  use  of  the  product,  furnishes  a 
goal  idea  which  is  especially  strong  with  some  persons, 
and  the  action  resulting  from  the  appeal  may  be  towards 
the  realization  of  the  goal. 

3.  A  third  means  of  inducing  action  by  suggestion  is  by 
means  of  the  return  coupon.  The  return  coujjon  is 
valuable  for  many  reasons,  some  of  them  psychological, 
some  of  them  practical.  In  the  first  place,  the  return 
coupon  has  a  relatively  high  attention  value.  It  is 
one  of  the  parts  of  an  advertisement  which  is  often  seen 
and  for  this  reason  leads  to  the  observing  of  things  which 
are  close  to  it.  In  the  second  place,  the  coupon  usually 
contains  a  direct  command,  such  as  "tear  out  this 
coupyon,"  or  "cut  along  this  line."  The  influence  of  the 
direct  command  has  already  been  discussed,  so  there  is 
at  present  no  reason  for  going  into  detail  upon  this  pyoint. 
Sometimes  the  direct  command  is  reenforced  by  the 
suggestions  considered  under  the  second  point.  Devices 
often  employed  are  pictures  which  suggest  the  action, 
such  as  a  pair  of  scissors  clipping  along  the  line,  or  of  a  f>en 
resting  on  the  first  dotted  line  uf)on  which  should  be  put 
the  name  of  the  reader.  These  two  devices,  when  taken 
together,  should  be  more  effective  than  either  alone,  es- 
pecially if  a  picture  of  a  person  clipping  the  coupion  or 
signing  his  name  can  be  used.  In  the  third  place,  the 
return  coupon  is  devised  to  overcome  the  laziness  of  the 
average  human  being.  Most  of  us  are  possessed  of  an 
inertia  which  makes  us  desire  to  continue  any  pleasant 
task  and  dislike  to  change  to  anything  else.  If  we  read 
an  advertisement  which  proves  to  be  especially  interest- 


^I*'l 


•! 


304     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

ing,  we  might  often  reply  if  paper,  ink,  and  envelopes 
were  at  hand.    Usually,  though,  answering  the  advertise- 
ment would  mvolve  a  considerable  amount  of  activity 
getting  up  and  procuring  the  stationery,  writing  an  entire 
busmess  letter,  and  the  like.    The  means  to  the  end  are 
clear,  but  there  is  not  sufficient  energy  developed  to 
carry   the   act   through   the   completion.    The   return 
coupon,  however,  requires  a  minimum  of  action  on  our 
part.    The  letter  is  written  for  us,  the  only  thing  we 
have  to  do  is  to  sign  our  names.    Since  most  of  us  carry 
pens  or  pencils  in  our  pockets,  no  search  for  these  articles 
IS  demanded.     Consequently,  the  relatively  sHght  amount 
of  energy  which  was  aroused  by  the  advertisement  is  suffi- 
aent  to  carry  the  slight  amount  of  action  to  completion. 
An  experiment  carried  on  by  Shryer  m  the  writer^s 
laboratory  shows  the  efficiency  of  the  return  coupon. 
He  used  two  pieces  of  half  page  copy  which  were  exactly 
alike  except  that  one  had  a  return  coupon  in  the  lower 
right  hand  comer,  the  other  did  not.    The  observers,  561 
m  number,  were  asked  which  piece  of  copy  they  preferred. 
I  he  Idea  was  to  secure  the  observer's  first  reaction  on 
seemg  the  copy.     Five  hundred  and  fifty-eight  records 
were  obtamed,  for  three  of  the  subjects  indicated  no 
preference  whatever.    The  results  follow  • 


435  college  men 
75  women  .  . 
48  business  men 


SS& 


In  Favor  or 
Coupon 


277 

41 
27 


345 


Not  in  Favor 
OF  Coupon 


158 
21 


213 


Percentage  in 
Favor  of  Coupon 


% 
63.6 

54.6 
56.2 


61.8 


These  results  indicate  that  the  copy  containing  the 
return  coupon  was  the  more  pleasing.  Since  the  only 
difference  between  them  was  the  presence  of  the  coupon 


ACTION 


305 


it  must  have  been  that  which  added  to  the  pleasant- 
ness.^ 

These  two  advertisements  were  then  inserted  in  mag- 
azines so  that  the  actual  business  efficiency  might  be 
determined.  The  piece  of  copy  without  the  coupon  was 
run  in  October,  191 2,  and  the  piece  with  a  coupon  in 
May,  19 13.  Both  appeared  in  the  same  magazine  and 
both  appeared  in  exactly  the  same  place  in  the  advertis- 
ing section.  These  months  were  chosen  because  they 
show  quite  homogeneous  returns  for  Shryer's  business. 
Whatever  advantage  there  was  of  a  seasonal  nature 
was  in  favor  of  the  October  insertion.  The  advantage 
which  would  come  from  increased  circulation  would 
belong  to  the  May  insertion.  Roughly,  these  two  would 
offset  each  other. 

The  results  obtained  by  the  October  half  page,  which 
was  without  the  coupon,  were  41  inquiries  at  a  cost  per 
inquiry  of  ^1.83.  The  May  half  page,  with  the  coupon, 
brought  83  inquiries  at  a  cost  per  inquiry  of  ?o.9o. 
These  results  are  overwhelmingly  in  favor  of  the  return 
coupon,  showing  that  in  this  test  it  more  than  doubled 
the  efficiency  of  the  advertisement.  Obviously,  we  have 
no  right  to  generalize  on  the  results  of  one  test,  but  they 
emphasize  the  importance  of  the  theoretical  considera- 
tions given  above. 

Another  example  of  the  efficiency  of  the  return  coupon 
is  found  in  this  quotation:  "The  Padlar  People,  Ltd., 
of  Oshawa,  Ontario,  manufacturers  of  architectural 
sheet-metal  building  material,  are  using  a  novel  coupon 
in  their  farm  paper  advertismg,  which  they  claim  has 
practically  doubled  the  inquiries.  Briefly,  the  coupon 
includes  a  diagram  of  the  two  types  of  barns  common  in 
Canada,  with  dimension  lines,  so  that  the  farmer  can  fill 
the  dimensions  and  get  an  estimate  from  the  manufacturer 
as  to  the  cost  of  sheathing  his  bam  with  steel  shingles. 

1  Shryer,  W.  A.,  "System,"  Dec.  1913,  pages  582-583. 

X 


s 


n 


ti 

ti 


306     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

"In  explaining  the  benefits  of  the  coupon,  A.  T.  Enlow, 
advertismg  manager  of  the  concern,  says:  *Our  long 
experience  with  the  farmer  has  convinced  us  that  he  will 
read  anything  halfway  interesting,  but  he  will  not  go 
to  a  great  deal  of  trouble  in  writing  letters.  No  doubt 
this  is  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  his  stationery  is  of 
an  uncertain  quality,  the  ink  dried  up,  and  the  pen  rusted. 
We  figure  that  by  making  it  easy  for  him  to  write  in  and 
find  out  what  it  would  cost  to  steel  shingle  his  barn  we 
would  save  him  a  lot  of  figuring  and  at  the  same  time 
the  association  of  ideas  would  bring  results.  As  a  result 
we  find  that  we  are  getting  more  than  twice  the  number 
of  inquiries  from  the  same  space  as  we  did  before  we 
adopted  this  diagram  idea.'"^ 

A  personal  letter,  received  by  Scott,  further  emphasizes 
the  value  of  the  return  coupon.  The  letter  omitting 
names  is  as  follows:  "Dear  Sir, —  I  am  sending  you 
under  separate  cover  copy  of  the  'Ballot'  advertisement, 
which  we  got  out  recently  along  the  lines  suggested  by 
your  articles  in  Mahin's  Magazine,  and  are  pleased  to 
report  that  the  returns  are  very  satisfactory.  Over 
50  per  cent  of  the  sheets  were  returned,  making  a  very 
valuable  mailing  list,  but  we  do  not  consider  this  as  im- 
portant as  the  psychological  value  of  having  the  retail 
dealers  make  a  special  request  for  our  monthly  price 
list. 

"As  a  test  case,  we  mailed  thirty  of  these  sheets  to 
dealers  to  whom  we  had  been  sending  our  catalogues 
and  other  advertising  material  regularly  for  a  number  of 
years,  but  had  never  received  any  returns.  Of  these 
seventeen  were  returned,  three  containing  special  re- 
quests for  prices,  one  of  which  resulted  in  an  immediate 
order. 

"I  find  the  knowledge  of  the  psychological  principles 
of  advertising  very  helpful  in  planning  my  advertising 

*  Starch,  "Advertising,"  page  243. 


ACTION 


307 


work,  and  will  be  pleased  to  give  you  any  further  data 
in  regard  to  the  results  obtained  that  you  may  wish."  ^ 

The  long  circuit,  or  reason-why,  copy  is  very  different 
from  the  short  circuit  appeal  in  principle.  In  the  latter, 
there  must  be  no  hint  of  the  existence  of  any  competitors, 
for  that  in  itself  would  be  a  negative  suggestion  and  tend 
to  prevent  the  action  from  taking  place.  In  the  long 
circuit  appeal  comparisons  with  competing  brands  are 
desired,  for  each  advertiser  is  hypothetically  so  sure  that 
his  product  is  the  best,  that  the  reader  of  the  advertise- 
ment must  agree  with  him  if  the  reasons  are  noticed. 
The  reason-why  copy  is  consequently  argumentative 
and  involves  reasoning  processes. 

Reasoning  is  in  psychological  terms  voluntary  think- 
ing, or  thinking  for  a  purpose.  The  starting  point  of 
the  reasoning  process  is  usually  said  to  be  a  thwarted 
purpose.  A  man  desires  to  do  something,  or  is  con- 
fronted by  a  situation  for  which  there  are  no  habitual 
or  instinctive  responses.  Consequently,  something  new 
must  be  evolved.  There  are  two  methods  by  means  of 
which  a  satisfactory  response  may  be  attained.  One, 
the  lower  form,  is  called  trial  and  error.  The  animal 
or  the  human  tries  one  act  after  another  until  one  is  hit 
upon  which  proves  to  be  satisfactory.  By  the  other 
method,  the  trial  and  error  takes  place  in  the  realm  of 
ideas.  One  idea  after  another  is  tried  until  one  is  hit 
upon  which  seems  to  meet  all  the  demands  of  the  case. 
If  it  is  possible  to  think  the  process  through  instead  of 
having  actually  to  try  out  all  the  various  possibilities, 
much  time  is  saved.  In  reality,  the  whole  process  re- 
duces to  the  mechanism  of  choice,  which  was  outlined  in 
the  foregoing  pages. 

In  the  advertising  situation,  the  starting  point  of  the 
reasoning  process  is  an  unsatisfied  want  or  need.    The 
man  knows  that  he  desires  a  certain  class  of  commodity, 
*  Scott,  "The  Theory  of  Advertising,"  pages  93-94. 


I 


4     i\ 


308    ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

but  there  are  so  many  different  makes  on  the  market 
that  he  is  not  just  sure  which  is  the  most  satisfactory. 
The  arguments  for  one  commodity  are  known,  those  for 
a  second,  a  third,  and  so  on.  A  given  product,  A,  is  in 
mind,  together  with  a  number  of  reasons  for  its  excellence. 
Then  along  comes  B  with  its  associations,  to  be  followed 
in  turn  by  C  with  its  fringe  of  ideas.  Each  is  weighed 
and  each  tends  to  neutralize  the  other,  but  some  one  of 
the  arguments  which  is  presented  will  have  a  greater 
motive  power  with  the  given  person  than  any  other  and 
the  action  will  eventually  be  in  terms  of  that  argument. 
The  whole  process  is  a  very  complex  one,  and  a  thorough 
understanding  of  it  would  involve  the  giving  of  innumer- 
able examples.  In  the  purchase  of  an  advertised  com- 
modity, the  considerations  which  have  weight  are  largely 
practical.  A  certain  need  is  felt  and  the  man  desires 
to  satisfy  the  need  in  as  thorough  a  way  as  possible,  and 
it  may  be  added  that  each  man's  need  is  slightly  or 
greatly  different  from  any  other  man's.  For  example, 
all  typewriting  machines  will  write  legibly.  A  traveling 
man  needs  a  portable  one,  a  sedentary  individual*  does 
not.  An  ordinary  correspondence  machine  is  unsatis- 
factory for  bookkeeping,  whereas  a  bookkeeping  machine 
would  be  of  little  value  to  a  mathematician,  and  one 
devised  for  the  latter  would  be  equally  useless  to  a  Greek 
scholar.  But  if  we  assume  that  different  machines  are 
made  to  satisfy  all  of  these  needs,  what  other  points 
must  be  considered?  Starch  gives  a  list  of  four,  as  fol- 
lows: **  First,  facts  relating  to  the  raw  material  from 
which  the  product  is  made.  Second,  the  facts  relating 
to  the  workmanship  in  the  production  of  the  article. 
Third,  the  various  uses  of  the  commodity.  Fourth,  the 
price  of  the  article."  ^ 

The  Remington  Company  made  use  of  the  raw  material 
argument  some  years  ago  by  stating  that  the  wooden 

^Starch,  "Advertising,"  pages  232-233. 


ACTION 


309 


levers  attached  to  the  keys  prevented  fatigue.     If  one 
had  a  considerable  amount  of  writing  to  do,  this  would  be 
a  powerful  appeal.    The  use  of  ball  bearings  to  reduce 
fnction,  and  make  the  action  consequently  easier    is 
another  of  the  same  nature.    The  raw  material  argu- 
ment may  be  a  strong  one  if  it  shows  how  the  material 
used  m  the  construction  makes  the  machine  or  article 
any  more  suitable  for  the  purpose  at  hand. 
^   Any   peculiarities   of   construction   or   workmanship 
m  the  production  of  the  article  may  make  a  powerful 
argument.    A   dust-proof   case   on   the   machine   will 
appeal  to  some.    The  impossibiHty  of  its  getting  out  of 
ahgnment  wiU  be   a   strong  point   with   many.    The 
mechamcal  perfection  appeal  is  Hkewise  strong.    Other 
points  which  might  be  taken  up  are  the  durabihty  of  the 
machine,  the  fact  that  it  is  noiseless,  that  it  is  made  of 
few  parts  and  consequently  cannot  get  out  of  order,— all 
of  these  are  excellent  arguments  of  their  kind  '  The 
uses  have  already  been  touched  upon,  so  there  is  no 
necessity  for  going  into  greater  detail. 

The  price  is  an  important  consideration.     One  may 
want  the  more  expensive  machine,  but  be  absolutely 
unable  to  afford  it.     If  it  can  be  definitely,  accurately 
and  convincingly  shown  that  the  higher-priced  machine 
wiU  save  the  difference,  that  point  may  make  sales 

These  points  all  deal  with  the  end  which  is  to  be  ac- 
complished, to  adopt  the  phraseology  of  earHer  pages. 
Anything  which  will  describe  the  end  more  fully,  make 
it  clearer,  more  adequate,  and  more  definite  will  tend  to 
bnng  about  the  reaHzation  of  the  end,  —  in  this  particu- 
lar case,  the  purchase  of  a  machine.  As  has  been  pointed 
out  before,  this  can  be  accomplished  in  two  ways,  or 
rather  in  accordance  with  the  remoteness  of  the  end. 
In  the  one  case,  the  product  may  be  considered  the  end 
and  a  graphic  description  of  the  commodity  in  terms  of 
some  well-recognized  appeal  will  make  the  end  more 


n 


310     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

clear  and  more  distinct.  In  the  other  case,  the  benefit 
which  the  individual  will  derive  from  the  use  of  the 
commodity  maybe  called  the  end,  and  the  personal  benefit 
may  be  pictured  in  a  convincing  way.  An  indication 
of  the  relative  strength  of  the  two  types  of  end  may  be 
obtained  from  the  attention  value  of  the  two  as  was 
shown  on  page  145.  There  it  was  shown  that,  on  the 
average,  an  end  of  the  first  type  was  shghtly  more  power- 
ful. It  seems  probable,  however,  that  the  description 
of  the  commodity  is  used  to  greater  advantage  in  the 
competitive  type  of  advertisement,  and  the  pointing  out 
of  personal  benefit  is  more  appropriate  in  connection 
with  new  and  untried  articles. 

Not  only  must  the  end  be  clearly  and  forcefully  de- 
scribed, no  matter  what  its  nature  is,  but  the  means  of 
accomplishing  the  end  must  also  be  indicated.  In 
connection  with  the  ordinary  advertised  article,  this 
would  mean  information  concerning  the  procuring  of 
the  commodity;  whether  it  can  be  obtained  at  stores, 
what  kinds  of  stores,  whether  it  must  be  written  for,  and 
if  so,  how  many  stamps,  provided  any  are  necessary, 
are  to  be  sent,  and  if  check,  draft,  or  money  order  is 
preferred.  The  directions  for  obtaining  the  commodity 
should  be  made  so  plain  and  so  explicit  that  there  is  no 
possibility  for  mistake.  In  this  connection,  the  com- 
bination of  the  short  circuit  appeal  with  the  reason  why 
is  especially  fortunate  —  such  a  device  as  the  return 
coupon,  for  example  —  for  it  lessens  by  a  considerable 
amount  the  energy  which  must  be  expended  in  carrying 
out  the  accomplishment  of  the  means  to  the  end.  Some 
such  scheme  as  this  must  be  employed,  or  the  associa- 
tions aroused  by  the  copy  must  have  a  very  considerable 
amoimt  of  motive  power  to  bring  about  the  desired  re- 
sponse. The  effect  is  much  more  easily  accomplished, 
however,  by  the  former  —  by  lessening  the  amount  of 
energy. 


ACTION 


3" 


Many  commodities  which  are  sold  by  means  of  reason- 
why  copy  necessitate  the  purchasing  of  certain  suppUes  to 
make  them  serviceable.  An  automobile  must  have  tires 
gasohne,  and  oil,  a  rifle  must  have  cartridges  and  oil  a 
kodak  must  have  films ;  and  another  consideration  which 
looms  large  in  the  purchase  of  such  a  commodity  is 
the  ease  of  procuring  the  necessary  supplies.  If  these 
can  be  obtained  easily  —  and  they  are  nothing  more  than 
a  means  to  the  end  of  using  the  object  —  the  object  is 
much  more  likely  to  be  purchased  than  when  considerable 
trouble  must  be  taken  to  supply  them. 

It  seems  to  be  a  proper  place  to  go  into  more  detail 
concermng  the  various  ways  of  strengthening  the  motive 
power  of  ideas,  for  in  last  analysis,  the  obtaining  of  action 
IS  directly  dependent  upon  the  ability  of  the  various  ideas 
to  result  in  movement.     In  the  first  place,  the  motive 
power  of  any  idea  will  depend  upon  the  attention  which 
that  idea  receives.    The  more  concentrated  the  atten- 
tion, the  more  Kkely  is  the  idea  to  issue  in  the  form  of 
movement.    This  refers  not  to  the  catching  of  attention 
but  the  holding  of  the  idea  in  the  focus  of  consciousness. 
If  an  idea  is  held  firmly  in  the  focus  of  consciousness, 
to  the  exclusion  of  aU  others,  it  must  result  in  action 
But  we  have  seen  that  attention  can  be  given  to  but  one 
thing  at  a  time  and  to  that  one  thing  for  only  three  or 
four   seconds.    Different  aspects  or  properties  of   the 
same  thing  may  be  attended  to,  however ;  so  continued 
attenUon  may  be  attained  by  mentioning  in  succession 
the  different  ways  of  regarding  the  same  thing.    This  is 
the  mam  reason  that  but  one  selhng  point  should  be 
mentioned  in  one  advertisement,  for  then  the  reader 
will  be  dominated  by  one  idea  rather  than  by  many. 
The  relative  attention  value  of  the  different  appeals 
has  already  been  given  on  page  145,  so  may  be  seen  by 
refernngback. 

Since  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  attention  be  caught 


M 


^' 


i 


:l 


I 


m 


312     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

before  it  be  held,  some  of  the  objective  conditions  may 
be  briefly  reviewed.  It  will  be  recalled  that  size  was  one 
of  the  conditions.  A  large  object  is  much  more  likely 
to  catch  attention  than  a  small  one,  other  things  being 
equal.  Consequently,  sheer  size,  if  it  is  reenforced  by 
interest  incentives  as  well,  is  likely  to  give  the  idea  de- 
rived from  it  more  motive  power  than  it  would  otherwise 
have.  For  the  large  object  produces  more  nerve  energy 
than  the  small ;  and,  on  the  average,  there  will  be  more 
of  the  energy  left  to  produce  action.  Exactly  the  same 
thing  is  true  of  intensity,  duration,  and  all  the  rest  of  the 
objective  conditions. 

The  effect  of  frequency  of  stimulation  depends  upon  a 
somewhat  different  explanation,  viz.,  the  wearing  down 
of  the  resistance  in  the  pathways  leading  to  the  sensory 
and  motor  centers  of  the  brain ;  so  that  there  is  more 
of  the  original  energy  left  to  produce  movement,  as 
is  shown  by  the  following  incidents.  Strong,  in  his 
experiments  at  Columbia,  used  50  Packer's  Tar  Soap 
advertisements  and  had  them  arranged  in  order  of 
merit  by  a  number  of  students.  This  made  a  fairly 
thorough  study  of  the  contents  of  the  advertisements 
necessary.  The  result  was  that  after  the  experiment 
was  concluded,  a  very  large  percentage  of  the  students 
used  in  the  test  went  out  and  bought  Packer's  Tar  Soap, 
a  brand  that  they  were  not  in  the  habit  of  using.  A 
very  similar  incident  occurred  at  the  University  of 
Michigan.  An  assistant  kept  finding  all  over  the  labora- 
tory a  series  of  Cuticura  advertisements  which  the 
writer  was  using  in  an  experiment.  Though  she  had 
used  Cuticura  and  given  it  up,  she  was  so  impressed  by 
the  frequency  with  which  the  advertisements  confronted 
her,  that  she  went  and  purchased  another  package. 

Another  method  of  producing  action  is  to  arouse  an 
emotion.  Much  loose  psychology  has  been  written  on 
the  relation  between  emotion  and  action,  and  the  state- 


■f' 


7 


. 


^  ji '  *< 


i 


Mi 


^ow^»-Sgm^^y^ 


FACIAL    -  :.A.. 


i 


I 


Fig.  XXIII. 


ACTION 


313 


ment  is  frequently  found  that  the  emotion  is  the  cause  of 
the  action.  In  the  present  unsettled  state  of  the  theories 
concerning  emotion,  it  is  probably  impossible  to  decide 
absolutely  that  this  statement  is  incorrect.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  it  makes  no  difference  whether  the  emotion  is 
the  cause  of  the  action,  or  the  action  the  cause  of  the 
emotion,  as  the  James-Lange  theory  and  the  Dewey 
theory  insist,  for  both  the  action  and  the  emotion  are 
the  result  of  the  stimulus ;  and  when  we  find  a  strong  emo- 
tion present,  we  usually  find  it  accompanied  by  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  action.  Conversely,  when  we  find 
a  large  amount  of  action,  we  likewise  discover  a  con- 
siderable degree  of  emotion.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
state,  then,  that  either  is  cause.  They  both  result  from 
the  same  stimulus,  and  usually  the  condition  which  pro- 
duces one  produces  the  other.  The  emotion  on  its  con- 
tent side  represents  merely  a  piling  up  of  consciousness  or 
an  intensification  of  consciousness.  Consequently,  the 
idea  or  sensation  which  gives  rise  to  the  emotion  comes 
under  the  general  category  of  intensity,  the  only  dif- 
ference being  that  it  represents  a  subjective  intensity 
rather  than  objective.  At  any  rate,  there  is  a  large 
amount  of  nerve  current  in  the  cortex  which  must  even- 
tually pass  over  into  the  motor  region. 

Closely  connected  with  this  principle  is  the  fact  that 
an  image  or  sensation  derived  from  the  contact  or  in- 
ternal senses  is  much  more  likely  to  be  emotionally 
toned  than  one  derived  from  the  distance  senses.  Since, 
in  advertising,  the  initial  appeal  is  through  the  distance 
senses,  some  endeavor  should  be  made  to  include,  either 
in  the  copy  or  the  picture,  some  suggestion  which  will 
arouse  either  a  contact  or  an  internal  image.  This  was 
done  very  cleverly  in  the  accompanying  Woodbury's 
Facial  Soap  advertisement,  Fig.  XXIII.  The  situation 
calls  out  the  sex  instinct  with  its  accompanying  powerful 
emotion. 


\  \i 


INTENTIONAL  SECOND  EXPOSURE 


ACTION 


313 


I' 


Fic.  XXIII. 


ment  is  frequently  found  that  the  emotion  is  the  cause  of 
the  action.  In  the  present  unsettled  state  of  the  theories 
concerning  emotion,  it  is  probably  impossible  to  decide 
absolutely  that  this  statement  is  incorrect.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  it  makes  no  difference  whether  the  emotion  is 
the  cause  of  the  action,  or  the  action  the  cause  of  the 
emotion,  as  the  James-Lange  theory  and  the  Dewey 
theory  insist,  for  both  the  action  and  the  emotion  are 
the  result  of  the  stimulus ;  and  when  we  find  a  strong  emo- 
tion present,  we  usually  find  it  accompanied  by  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  action.  Conversely,  when  we  find 
a  large  amount  of  action,  we  likewise  discover  a  con- 
siderable degree  of  emotion.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
state,  then,  that  either  is  cause.  They  both  result  from 
the  same  stimulus,  and  usually  the  condition  which  pro- 
duces one  produces  the  other.  The  emotion  on  its  con- 
tent side  represents  merely  a  piling  up  of  consciousness  or 
an  intensification  of  consciousness.  Consequently,  the 
idea  or  sensation  which  gives  rise  to  the  emotion  comes 
under  the  general  category  of  intensity,  the  only  dif- 
ference being  that  it  represents  a  subjective  intensity 
rather  than  objective.  At  any  rate,  there  is  a  large 
amount  of  nerve  current  in  the  cortex  which  must  even- 
tually pass  over  into  the  motor  region. 

Closely  connected  with  this  principle  is  the  fact  that 
an  image  or  sensation  derived  from  the  contact  or  in- 
ternal senses  is  much  more  likely  to  be  emotionally 
toned  than  one  derived  from  the  distance  senses.  Since, 
in  advertising,  the  initial  appeal  is  through  the  distance 
senses,  some  endeavor  should  be  made  to  include,  either 
in  the  copy  or  the  picture,  some  suggestion  which  will 
arouse  either  a  contact  or  an  internal  image.  This  was 
done  very  cleverly  in  the  accompanying  Woodbury's 
Facial  Soap  advertisement,  Fig.  XXIII.  The  situation 
calls  out  the  sex  instinct  with  its  accompanying  powerful 
emotion. 


I 


n 


314     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

The  words  which  are  employed  and  the  sentence  struc- 
ture which  is  used  are  both  important  elements.  It 
may  dogmatically  be  said  that  short  and  simple  words 
should  be  used  in  advertising  copy,  for  it  is  necessary  to 
arouse  a  clear  and  distinct  image.  This  can  only  be 
done  by  words  which  are  familiar  to  the  reader.  The 
short  words  of  Anglo-Saxon  origin  are  more  familiar 
than  their  longer  synonyms  and  have  more  "punch" 
behind  them.  They  do  not  adapt  themselves  so  readily 
to  a  smooth  flowing  style,  but  are  better  in  conveying  a 
definite  impression  to  the  average  person. 

As  has  been  pointed  out  by  Hollingworth,^  there  is  a 
direct  relation  between  the  span  of  attention  and  the 
make-up  of  a  sentence  which  is  easily  apprehended.  It 
has  been  said  that  we  could  grasp  four  or  five  things 
mentally  at  one  time.  Consequently,  it  may  be  argued 
that  a  sentence  to  be  easily  grasped  should  contain  from 
three  to  five  phrases  of  three  to  five  words  each. 

The  long  circuit  appeal  and  the  short  circuit  appeal 
have  been  treated  so  far  as  if  they  were  absolutely  dis- 
tinct. They  may  of  course  be  made  so,  but  the  average 
advertisement  is  neither  all  short  circuit  nor  all  long 
circuit,  but  a  mixture  of  the  two.  Even  with  the  best 
reason-why  copy  in  the  world,  the  action  which  results 
from  it  must  be  of  the  ideo-motor  or  sensori-motor  sort. 
For  once  the  competing  ideas  are  eliminated,  there  is 
only  the  conquering  idea  left  and  its  expression  must  fol- 
low the  ideo-motor  principle.  Most  advertisements  are 
a  mixture  of  the  two  types  of  appeal,  and  they  are  ranked 
in  one  class  or  the  other  as  they  tend  to  emphasize  that 
kind  of  appeal. 

As  has  been  already  stated,  anything  which  will  tend 
to  give  an  idea  a  greater  motive  power  will  be  advan- 
tageous to  either  type,  and  the  same  general  principles 
that  will  work  in  one  case  will  work  in  the  other  to  give 

1  Hollingworth,  "Advertising  and  Selling,"  pages  $^59- 


ACTION 


315 


\ 


I 


the  ideas   and  sensations    greater  power  to   produce 
movement. 

The  question  of  when  the  long  circuit  and  when  the 
short  circuit  appeal  should  be  used  is  of  some  importance. 
Obviously,  because  the  short  circuit  appeal  asks  us  to  do 
nothing  which  is  new,  since  it  depends  for  its  strength 
upon  the  tapping  of  instincts  and  habits  which  are  aheady 
formed,  it  should  be  used  with  commodities  which  are 
familiar.  Put  the  other  way  around,  it  may  be  used  to 
influence  us  to  perform  any  instinctive  or  habitual  act,  but 
it  cannot  compel  us  to  go  against  our  habits  and  instincts. 
Among  the  strongest  of  the  instincts  is  the  seeking  of 
food,  so  food  advertisements  might  well  be  of  this  sort. 
If  cleanliness  is  an  instinct,  as  it  is  often  asserted  to  be, 
soap  appeals  might  well  be  based  upon  suggestion  and 
imitation.^  Objects  of  decoration,  and  as  far  as  clothing 
the  body  is  based  upon  the  instinct  to  decorate,  clothing, 
except  for  utilitarian  reasons,  may  be  based  upon  this 
type  of  appeal.  Objects  promoting  comfort,  health, 
bodily  safety,  etc.,  may  also  be  satisfactorily  advertised 
by  short  circuit  appeals.  Objects  which  satisfy  some 
whim  of  the  individual  may  likewise  be  grouped  under 
this  general  heading. 

From  another  standpoint,  any  article  which  is  in- 
expensive may  be  advertised  by  the  short  circuit  route, 
for  the  appeal  will  not  then  arouse  ideas  of  economy. 
Most  of  us  have  formed  habits  of  expenditure ;  we  know 
how  much  we  can  spend  for  this,  that,  and  the  other  prod- 
uct, and  where  the  cost  is  trifling  the  contrary  notion 
of  economy  does  not  step  in  and  prevent  the  action. 
With  more  expensive  articles,  however,  the  economy  idea 
is  pretty  universally  present,  and  as  an  idea,  is  suffi- 
ciently strong  to  prevent  the  expression  of  the  buying 
idea. 

The  long  circuit  appeal  or  the  reason-why  copy,  on  the 
other  hand,  should  be  used  with  expensive  commodities 


M^^lf 


316     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

the  purchase  of  which  has  not  become  a  definite  habit. 
It  is  necessary  that  the  economy  tendency  be  driven 
out  by  a  stronger  idea  that  action  may  eventuate.  In 
fact,  the  long  drcuit  appeal  may  be  used  for  all  of  those 
articles  which  are  opposite  in  character  to  those  which 
can  be  successfully  appealed  to  by  the  short  circuit 
method.  Anything  then  which  is  impersonal,  useful  as 
an  end,  and  not  for  itself,  and  especially  for  articles 
which  partake  of  the  nature  of  a  tool,  those  things  which 
are  simply  the  means  to  a  more  or  less  remote  end,  may 
be  advertised  by  the  long  circuit  route. 


\ 


] 


CHAPTER  XV 
Sex  Differences 

It  has  been  stated  in  an  earher  chapter  that  the  occu- 
pation of  the  individual  determined  the  peculiarities  of 
his  mind.  Since  the  occupations  of  men  and  women 
have  become  so  diverse  in  the  history  of  the  race,  we 
might  expect  to  see  this  difference  reflected  in  the 
make-up  of  their  minds.  Because  of  this  standpoint, 
many  investigations  have  been  carried  on  to  determine 
the  mental  sex  differences.  Surprisingly  enough,  few  real 
ones  have  been  found.  This  is  owing,  very  largely,  to 
the  fact  that  occupational  variations  were  not  used  as 
the  basis  in  devising  the  tests  which  were  employed. 
Since  the  advertising  situation  is  one  in  which  the 
previous  training  and  occupation  of  the  individual  play 
an  important  rdle,  the  sex  differences  which  have  been 
determined  probably  represent  a  truth  which  should  be 
invaluable  to  the  advertiser.  Many  commodities  are 
strictly  women's  propositions;  and  the  advertiser,  to 
secure  the  largest  returns,  should  know  the  foibles  of 
the  sex  and  base  his  campaign  upon  that  knowledge. 
For  the  sake  of  making  them  easy  of  access,  the  sex 
differences  which  have  been  determined  by  the  exper- 
iments quoted  will  be  summarized. 

In  catching  the  attention,  size  was  found  to  be  a  more 
important  factor  with  women  than  with  men.  Men, 
on  the  other  hand,  are  more  likely  to  attend  with  more 
nearly  equal  vigor  to  successive  presentations  of  the  same 
object.    Men  are  more  likely  to  see  blue  than  women, 

317 


I 


318     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

whereas  women  are  more  likely  to  have  their  attention 
attracted  by  red  than  men.  Men's  attention  is  more 
likely  to  be  caught  by  pictures  than  women's. 

Women's  attention  is  much  more  likely  to  be  held  by 
personal  appeals.  They  appear  also  to  be  more  in- 
fluenced by  appeals  to  ambition,  making  money  in 
leisure  moments,  and  the  like.  They  are,  too,  likely 
to  be  caught  by  "bargain"  and  "cheap"  appeals, 
whereas  the  men  are  much  more  interested  in  "special 
sales."  Women  apparently  have  more  pride,  both  for 
themselves  and  for  the  political  and  social  groups  of 
which  they  are  a  part.  Men,  on  the  other  hand,  are 
more  influenced  by  appeals  which  concern  their  indus- 
trial and  occupational  groups,  such  as  a  union.  They 
are  also  interested  more  than  the  women  by  the  recom- 
mendations of  persons  in  authority,  and  the  indirect 
argument  flatters  them  by  appealing  to  their  intelligence. 
Man's  greater  knowledge  of  business  conditions  as- 
sures him  of  the  worth  of  goods  which  are  turned  out  by 
old  firms,  by  rapidly  growing  firms,  and  the  like. 

Women  have  better  memories  than  men  for  observed 
events,  but  different  factors  influence  their  memories 
differently.  Men  are  more  likely  to  remember  large 
advertisements,  women,  frequently  repeated  advertise- 
ments just  reversing  the  conditions  found  to  hold  in 
attention.  Women  remember  pictures  in  advertise- 
ments better  than  men,  but  the  men  remember  the  trade 
name  better  than  the  women.  In  fact,  the  women  are 
likely  to  remember  the  picture  better  than  anything 
else  in  the  advertisement.  Women  are  more  likely  than 
men  to  remember  material  which  is  presented  in  three- 
part  rhythms,  while  men  are  more  apt  than  women  to 
recall  data  which  are  presented  in  two-part  rhythms. 
With  the  three-part  rhythms,  men  are  more  affected  by 
the  falling  measures,  women  by  the  rising. 

It  is  commonly  supposed  that  women  are  more  emo- 


SEX  DIFFERENCES 


310 


tional  than  men,  though  this  is  apparently  a  mere  im- 
pression. As  far  as  experimental  evidence  goes,  there 
is  little  to  be  said  for  or  against  the  statement.  The 
tests  on  color  preference  showed  that  women  are  likely 
to  prefer  red,  men  blue,  though  there  are  many  excep- 
tions. Women  like  tints  better  than  do  the  men,  whereas 
men  prefer  saturated  colors  and  shades.  Women,  like- 
wise, are  fonder  than  men  of  pictures. 

On  the  motor  side,  it  has  been  stated  that  women  are 
more  suggestible  than  men.  This  was  determined  by 
asking  a  group  of  both  sexes  to  copy  a  script  document. 
It  was  found  that  the  women  tended  to  imitate  the 
handwriting  in  the  model  to  a  greater  extent  than  the 
men.  There  is  some  slight  experimental  evidence  for 
the  statement  that  men  are  more  logical  than  women 
and  would  therefore  be  more  likely  to  enjoy  having  their 
reason  appealed  to.  If  such  is  the  case,  women  would 
be  more  likely  to  be  persuaded  by  short  circuit  appeals 
and  men  by  the  long  circuit  advertisements. 

In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  women  are  more 
homogeneous  than  men,  showing  less  variability,  and 
tending  to  resemble  each  other  more  closely.  Another 
related  difference  is  brought  out  by  Hollingworth.^ 
He  says,  "Men  agree  more  closely  in  their  preferences 
and  women  are  more  alike  in  their  dislikes." 

1  Hollingworth,  Psy.  Reo.,  Vol.  18,  page  256. 


I 


1 


CHAPTER  XVI 
Results  Obtained  in  Advertising 

In  the  foregoing  chapters,  psychological  principles 
have  been  discussed,  and  certain  general  laws  have  been 
pointed  out.  It  is  necessary  now  to  give  the  results 
obtamable  from  the  actual  practice  of  advertising  and 
to  show  such  relations  as  exist  between  the  theory  and 
practice.  It  is  extremely  regrettable  that  so  few  actual 
returns  from  advertising  campaigns  can  be  obtained. 
The  writer  has  succeeded  in  getting  the  results  of  a  few 
from  the  advertising  literature  and  from  correspondence 
with  the  heads  of  several  of  the  large  advertising  depart- 
ments of  concerns  which  carry  on  national  advertising. 

It  is  of  course  probable  that  different  commodities 
will  demand  different  advertising,  so  the  opinions  of 
some  of  the  experts  are  somewhat  contradictory.  This 
is  to  be  expected,  and  instead  of  making  the  testimony 
less  valuable,  it  increases  its  worth  very  considerably. 

I,  Size  of  Advertisements.  ~  Exsict  information  con- 
cerning the  effect  of  the  size  of  advertisements  has  been 
obtained  from  three  sources :  one  a  series  of  mail  order 
propositions,  a  second  from  the  sale  of  cattle,  and  third 
from  a  toilet  article  concern.  Expressions  of  opinion 
have  been  received  from  various  other  sources.  These 
will  now  be  taken  up  in  detail. 

The  first  set  of  records  was  obtained  from  Shryer.* 
He  gives  two  sets  of  figures,  the  first  obtained  from  a 
four  years'  record  of  mediums  in  general,  the  other  from 

» Shiyer,  W.  A.,  "Analytical  Advertising,"  pages  171-175,  190. 

320 


RESULTS  OBTAINED  IN  ADVERTISING    321 

the  advertisements  which  were  carried  in  System,  Be- 
ginning with  the  quarter  page  in  both  cases,  for  nothing 
smaller  has  been  consistently  used  in  the  experiments 
which  have  been  described,  his  figures  are  as  follows : 


Size  of  Advertisement 

Insertions 

Inquiries 

Inquiries  per 
Insertion 

J  page       

i  page      

Full  page      .... 

99 
60 

69 

2766 
2458 
4296 

28.0 
41.0 
62.3 

If  the  inquiries  per  insertion  are  taken  and  reduced  to 
ratios  to  make  them  comparable  with  other  results,  the 
following  is  obtained  : 

Size  of  Advertisement   Ratio  of  Inquiries 

4  page 1.00 

I  page 1.46 

Full  page  ....     2.23 

The  results  obtained  from  the  advertisements  in 
System  are  treated  in  the  same  way. 


Sira  of  Advertisement 

Insertions 

Inquiries 

Inquiries  per 
Insertion 

ipage 

i  page 

Full  page      .... 
3  page 

10 
19 

3 

680 
2076 

3385 
850 

68.0 
109.0 
154.0 
283.0 

Table  of  Ratios 

Size  of  Ad  Ratio  of  Inquiries 

i  page i.oo 

i  page 1.60 

Full  page  ....     2.27 
3  page 4.17 

Averaging  the  results  of  these  two  sets  of  figures,  the 
following  is  obtained : 


ir 


322     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 


iPAGE 

}Page 

Full  Page 

3  Page 

First  set 

Second  set 

I.OO 
I.OO 

1.46 

1.60 

2.23 
2.27 

4.17 

Average 

1.00 

1-53 

2.25 

4.17 

...  ,„..._ 

These  figures,  which  may  be  plotted  graphically, 
show  that  the  efficiency  of  the  size  of  the  mail  order  adver- 
tisements which  were  quoted  by  Shryer  varies  approxi- 
mately as  the  1.73  root  of  the  size  of  the  advertisement. 

The  next  set  of  actual  returns  is  taken  from  Starch.^ 
He  says,  "A.  H.  Kuhlmann  made  a  study  of  the  re- 
lation between  the  number  of  sales  of  pure  bred  cattle 
and  the  amount  of  space  used  in  the  agricultural  papers 
to  effect  their  sale.  This  study  is  particularly  impor- 
tant because  it  was  possible  to  tabulate  not  only  the 
amount  of  advertising  space  used,  but  also  the  exact 
number  of  sales  made.  The  latter  was  determined 
from  the  registers  and  transfers  of  pure  bred  stock." 
A  modification  of  the  table  presented  by  Starch  is  given 
showing  the  number  of  column  inches  of  advertising 
used  and  the  number  of  sales  made  during  each  six 
months  from  igcxj  to  1907 : 


Year 

Jan.  to  June 

JuLV  TO  Dec. 

Advert. 

Sales 

Advert. 

Sales 

1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 

1905 
1906 

1907 

118.0 
246.0 
326.0 
326.0 
347 -o 
599-5 
427-5 
537-0 

% 

97 
82 

107 

171 

161 

254 

245.0 
262.2 
292.0 
3270 
390.0 

397.5 
361.0 
492.0 

30 
25 

105 

108 

90 

188 

137 

195 

*  Starch,  "Advertising,"  pages  49-50. 


RESULTS  OBTAINED  IN  ADVERTISING    323 

If  these  results  are  taken  and  the  figures  between  100 
and  200  representing  advertising  space  are  averaged 
and  the  sales  belonging  to  them  are  likewise  averaged, 
then  the  advertising  space  between  200  and  300  column 
inches  is  averaged  in  the  same  way,  and  so  on  for  all  the 
various  sizes  and  the  sales  resulting  from  those  sizes, 
the  following  relations  are  found  to  exist : 


Advertising 

inches 
211 

353 

459 
568 


Sales 

S« 

116 

178 
212 


Putting  this  into  ratios,  the  following  result  is  ob- 
tained; 


Advektisino 

I.OO 

1.67 
2.26 
2.70 


Sales 

I.OO 

2.23 

3-42 
4.08 


These  results  show  that  the  effect  of  increasing  the 
space  used  in  advertising  varies  directly  as  the  1.5  power 
of  the  amount  of  space  which  is  used.  This  figure  is 
approximate  only.  The  relation  between  amount  of 
space  and  returns  is  quite  different  from  that  obtained 
from  the  mail  order  advertisements.  This  is  only  nat- 
ural when  the  differences  in  the  type  of  commodity 
sold  are  considered. 

The  results  of  the  various  effects  of  size  will  now  be 
considered.  Data  have  been  obtained  concerning  the 
attention  value  of  size,  the  memory  value  of  size,  and 
the  increased  returns  which  come  from  increasing  the 
size  of  advertisements.  The  ratios  resulting  from  these 
are  thrown  together  in  the  following  table  for  purposes 
of  comparison : 


324     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 


Units  of  Size 

I 

a 

4 

Attention 

Memory 

Returns,  mail  order     .    .    . 

I.OO 
I.OO 

1.00 

1.67 
I.S3 

2.05 
2.26 
2.25 

2.  Frequency  of  Insertion.  —  Data  bearing  upon  the 
effect  of  subsequent  advertisements  of  the  same  com- 
modity have  been  likewise  obtained  from  Shryer.* 
He  gives,  in  these  pages,  the  results  from  the  advertising 
campaigns  of  four  different  concerns.  Since  the  results 
obtained  from  these  mail  order  propositions  show  so 
little  difference,  they  are  grouped  together  and  simply 
the  average  results  taken.  The  number  of  inquiries  re- 
ceived from  the  first,  second,  and  so  on  up  to  the  seventh 
insertion  of  the  advertisement,  are  given.  Since  both 
the  number  of  insertions  of  the  advertisements  and  the 
resulting  number  of  inquiries  were  so  irregular,  they  were 
all  reduced  to  ratios  and  the  ratios  averaged.  The  records 
for  classified  advertisements  were  not  considered,  for  it  is 
generally  admitted  that  there  is  a  considerable  difference 
in  the  attitude  which  persons  take  towards  the  two 
kinds,  classified  and  display,  the  former  appealing  pri- 
marily to  those  who  are  already  interested  in  the  prop- 
osition. 

In  working  out  the  results,  the  writer  has  added 
together  the  records  of  consecutive  insertions  of  the 
advertisements,  thus  showing  the  total  number  of 
inquiries  pulled  by  the  first  insertion  alone,  by  the  first 
two,  the  first  three,  etc.  The  figures,  reduced  to  ratios, 
follow : 

*  Shryer,  W.  A.,  "Analytical  Advertising,"  pages  82-114. 


\ 


RESULTS  OBTAINED  IN  ADVERTISING    325 


Number  of  Insertions     • 

X 

a 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

Inquiries    .... 

I.OO 

2.01 

303 

4-33 

S-23 

6.58 

7.84 

These  figiires  are  to  a  certain  extent  untrustworthy 
and  misleading,  for  out  of  the  thirty  or  more  tables 
from  which  they  were  derived,  fully  half  contained  too 
few  figures  to  be  entirely  dependable.  The  16  tables 
which  contained  100  inquiries  or  more  for  the  first  in- 
sertion were  considered  apart,  for  it  was  thought  that 
the  greater  the  number  of  inquiries,  the  less  effect  some 
slight  accidental  variation  would  have.  The  table  made 
up  by  these  ratios  follows : 


Number  of  Insertions 

z 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

Inquiries    .... 

I.OO 

2.08 

2.78 

3-46 

4.20 

564 

6.28 

Comparing  these  results  with  those  obtained  from  the 
experiments  on  the  effect  of  frequency  of  repetition  on 
attention  and  memory,  the  following  is  obtained : 


Attention 

Memory . 
Returns  . 


Number  of  Presentations 


1 


326     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

It  will  be  seen  once  more  that  the  relation  between  the 
general  tendencies  as  determined  in  the  laboratory  and 
the  results  from  mail  order  propositions  such  as  those 
listed  by  Shryer  is  very  close  indeed,  being  in  general 
below  the  error  of  observation. 

3.  Certain  other  relations  between  the  general  prin- 
ciples which  have  been  postulated  as  a  result  of  exper- 
iments in  psychological  laboratories  and  returns  from 
actual  advertisements  are  to  be  obtained  from  an  article 
by  Hollingworth.^  Ninety-nine  advertisements  were 
sent  to  him  for  psychological  analysis.  Each  one  of  the 
advertisements  was  definitely  known  or  supposed  to 
have  been  unusually  successful.  A  complete  analysis 
would  have  been  an  endless  task,  so  he  contented  lum- 
self  with  the  consideration  of  several  main  points.      ^^ 

A,  One  question  which  was  taken  up  was  the  means 
used  to  catch  the  reader's  attention.  It  will  be  recalled 
that  there  are  two  main  ways  of  doing  this:  first  by 
means  of  mechanical  incentives,  such  devices  as  in- 
tensity, size,  and  the  like,  the  result  of  which  is  to  flood 
the  cortex  with  nervous  energy,  thereby  compelling  at- 
tention; the  second  by  means  of  interest  incentives, 
those  things  which  will  meet  with  ready  reception  in 
consciousness  because  of  our  past  training  and  heredity. 

Hollingworth  found  that  the  number  of  advertisements 
depending  upon  the  different  incentives  were  as  follows : 

Mainly  on  mechanical  devices  ...  34 
Mainly  in  interest  incentives  ....  44 
Mixed  or  intermediate 21 

B.  A  second  question  was  the  means  employed  to  keep 
the  attention,  once  it  had  been  caught.  One  of  the 
means  for  doing  this  is  by  making  the  impression  pro- 
duced by  the  advertisement  pleasant.  Classified  on 
this  basis,  the  following  table  resulted : 

*  HoUingworth,  Advertising  and  Selling,  August,  1915,  page  19. 


m 


RESULTS  OBTAINED  IN  ADVERTISING    327 

Distinctly  agreeable  feeling  tone  ...  51 
Distinctly  disagreeable  feeling  tone  .  .  n 
Indifferent  feeling  tone 37 

I.  A  second  method  of  holding  the  attention  of  the 
reader  of  the  advertisement  was  shown  to  be  the  type  of 
selHng  point  which  was  made.  Some  would  prove  to  be 
interesting,  others  would  not.  The  results  of  the  ex- 
periment on  the  50  abstract  appeals  were  grouped  under 
7  main  heads  with  several  subheads.  The  advertise- 
ments were  ranked  by  Hollingworth  as  they  came  under 
each  of  these  heads.  Changing  his  figures  around  to  make 
them  correspond  with  our  classification,  the  following 
table  results,  showmg  the  relations  between  the  labora- 
tory test  and  the  effective  advertisements : 


Selling  Point 

Lab.  Test 

Ad.  Contest 

I. 

A. 

I 
3 

3 

4 

5 
6 

I 

9 

10 

II 
12 

13 
14 

III. 

A. 

I 
41 

V. 

A.    ! 

II. 

lo.s 

II. 

B.    . 

3 

I. 

C.    . 

S 
6 

lo.s 

III. 
II. 

B.  . 

C.  . 

VT. 

B.    '. 

7 

I. 

3 

III. 
I. 

C.  . 

D.  . 

4 

10.5 
8 

II. 

D.   . 

IV. 

• 

10.S 

With  three  exceptions,  the  results  agree  very  well  in- 
deed. 

C.  A  third  point  is  in  connection  with  memory.  It  is 
a  psychological  prindple  that  anything  which  is  logically 
put,  which  hangs  together  as  a  whole,  or  which  is  unified, 
is  more  easily  remembered  than  something  which  is 


i 


328     ADVERTISING  AND  ITS  MENTAL  LAWS 

not.  It  is  the  essential  difference  between  logical  and 
rote  learning.  Classified  on  this  basis,  the  99  adver- 
tisements were  grouped  as  follows : 

Well  or  fairly  well  unified 53 

Indifferently  unified 35 

Wretchedly  unified n 

p.  In  connection  with  the  action  producing  possi- 
bilities of  the  advertisement,  two  things  should  be 
considered :  the  short  circuit  or  the  long  circuit  appeal. 
Classified  on  this  basis,  the  advertisements  were  grouped 
as  follows : 

Long  circuit,  or  reason-why  copy 63 

Short  circuit,  or  human  nature  copy     ....!!    17 
Mixed  or  intermediate !    .*    .*    19 

Hollingworth  says:  "Obviously  these  successful  ad- 
vertisements have  made  their  major  appeal  to  the 
intelligence,  the  cahn,  dehberate  reflection,  of  the  read- 
ers. They  have  on  the  whole  not  been  satisfied  with 
bare  and  unsupported  assertions,  nor  have  they  made 
merely  a  sentimental  and  emotional  appeal.  How  far 
this  tendency  has  been  determined  by  the  character  of 
the  products  advertised  it  is  difficult  to  say.  There 
are  certain  types  of  commodities  for  which  the  short 
circuit  appeal  is  especially  appropriate.  But  taking 
these  products  as  a  total  group,  the  greater  proportion 
of  them  have  not  used  this  type  of  appeal." 

E.  Hollingworth  has  discovered  a  third  type  of  ap- 
peal among  the  99  advertisements  which  he  calls  ''Ra- 
Honalization  Copy:'  He  says  concerning  them,^  "  Thirty 
of  these  99  advertisements  constitute  an  interesting 
group  by  themselves.  They  are  what  I  may  call,  for 
want  of  a  better  term,  'rationalization'  copy.  One  of 
the  striking  tendencies  of  human  beings  is  to  actj^judge, 

^  HoUingworth,  Advertising  and  Selling,  August,  1915. 


RESULTS  OBTAINED  IN  ADVERTISING    329 

believe,  or  vote  on  strictly  instinctive,  emotional  grounds, 

and  then,  after  the  act  is  committed,  to  try  to  justify 

or  defend  it  by  intellectual  and  logical  reasons.    First 

of  all  we  believe  in  immortahty,  just  because  we  feel 

Hke  it,  want  it,  or  have  an  instinctive  yearning  for  it. 

Then  having  formulated  our  behef ,  on  these  purely  non- 

.  rational  grounds,  we  search  and  search  for  arguments 

which  we  can  give  to  our  neighbors  in  justification  of 

our  behef.    We  would  like  them  to  think  that  we  ourselves 

believe  on  the  grounds  of  logical  arguments.    But  in 

our  heart  of  hearts  we  know  that  we  first  believed  and 

only  when  our  belief  was  challenged  did  we  search  for 

logical  proofs  or  reasons.    Men  buy  automobiles  in  the 

same  way.  ^  I  buy  my  car  because  my  neighbor  has  one, 

because  it  is  the  fashion  to  have  one,  because  of  my 

pnde,  my  jealousy,  my  vanity.    Then,  having  bought 

the  car  I  look  about  for  logical  justifications  which  I 

call  give  for  my  conduct.     'It  saves  time/  'It  enter- 

tams  the  family,'  'It  gives  us  needed  relaxation '  'It 

saves  car  fare,'  etc.  etc. 

"  Now  the  advertising  man  is  beginning  to  understand 
this  human  tendency  and  at  least  30  of  these  99  ad- 
vertisements begin  with  a  distinctly  emotional,  short 
circuit  appeal,  thus  persuading  and  seducing  the  reader. 
Ihen  the  ad-wnter  hastens  to  add  a  series  of  logical 
reasons,  which  probably  exert  but  little  influence  on  the 
prospect's  own  decision,  but  they  fortify  him  against  the 
objections  of  his  mother-in-law,  his  employer,  his  banker 
and  his  conscience.  This  is  a  distinct  type  of  adver- 
tisement which  is  coming  more  and  more  into  prom- 
inence, and  It  takes  advantage,  in  a  very  clever  way  of 
the  rationalizing  tendency  of  all  of  us." 


1i 


J  i 


INDEX 


Action,  277-316. 

Action,  Cues  to,  283,  284,  285. 

Effect  of  duration  on,  286-289. 

EflFect  of  intensity  on,  286,  287. 

Effect  of  size  on,  286,  288. 

Ideo-motor,  282,  283. 

Lack  of,  294,  295,  296. 

Sensori-motor,  282,  283. 
Advertising,  Advantages  of,  5. 

and  Psychology,  18-27. 

Consciousness,  24,  25,  26,  27. 

Definition  of,  2,  3,  4. 

Experiments  in,  57-69. 

Function  of,  4. 
Advertisements,  Appearance  of,  249- 
276. 

Classification  of,  31-34. 
Affection,  250. 
Angell,  21,  55. 

Appeal,  Long  circuit,   296-307,    311, 
31S,  316. 

Short  circuit,  296-307,  315. 
Association,  153-195. 
Association,  backwards,  180-195. 

by  contiguity,  156. 

by  contrast,  157. 

by  frequency,  158,  160,  165. 

by  intensity,  158,  160. 

by  primacy,  158,  160,  179,  180. 

by  recency,  158,  160,  179,  180. 

by  similarity,  157. 

by  succession,  156. 

Formation  of,  153,  154,  155. 

Forward,  180-195. 

Value  of  catch  phrase,  173. 

Value  of  company  name,  173. 

Value  of  name  of  article,  173. 

Value  of  pictiure,  173,  174. 
Attention,  82-152. 

Conditions  of,  87-122. 

Definition  of,  82. 

Diiration  of,  86. 


Attention,  Effects  of  position  on,  87- 
99. 

Holding  the,  123-152. 

Nervous  basis  of,  82,  83. 

Range  of,  85,  86. 

Results  of,  83-85. 

Subjective  conditions  of,  125-127. 

Value  of  change,  114. 

Value  of  color,  11 7-1 20. 

Value  of  duration,  no. 

Value  of  frequency,  110-114. 

Value  of  intensity,  106. 

Value  of  motion,  114,  115. 

Value  of  pictures,  148-152. 

Value  of  right  and  left  pages,  99-102. 

Value  of  size,  1 06-1 10. 
Average,  72,  74. 
Average  deviation,  75. 

Balance,  271,  272,  273. 
Bullough,  259. 

Calkins,  159,  219. 
Central  tendency,  72. 
Character  of  colors,  259-262. 
Cheney,  175. 
Chicago  Tribune,  7. 
Choice,  285-286. 
Circulation,  34, 

Specific,  35- 

Waste,  35. 
Classification  of  advertisements,  31-34. 
Classification  of  movements,  278-281. 
CoeflScient  of  correlation,  62, 67, 79, 80. 
Color  Harmony,  262-267. 
Color  preference,  250-259. 

Age  differences  in,  256. 

Culture  differences  in,  256,  257. 

Effect  of  background  on,  253,  254. 

Effect  of  duration  on,  258,  259. 

Effect  of  size  on,  257,  258. 

Sex  differences  in,  254,  255. 


331 


3S2 


INDEX 


Colvin,  346. 

G}mparison  of  theory  and  practice, 

320-329. 
Contiguity,  156. 
Contrast,  157. 
Cues  to  action,  283-285. 

Dallenbach,  246. 

Dewey,  24. 

Definitions  of  advertising,  2,  3,  4. 

Development  of  consciousness,  20,  21. 

Direct  command,  297-300, 

Direction  of  lines,  267,  268. 

Dynamogenesis,  277. 


Ebbinghaus,  245. 
Ellipses,  269. 
Ellis,  257. 
Ellsworth,  8. 

Feeling,  249. 
Frederick,  5. 

Frequency,  158,  i6o,  165. 
Froeberg,  286. 
Fusions,  196-215. 

Gale,  88,  93,  119,  120,  128. 
Geometrical  figxires,  268,  269. 
Gordon,  267. 

Harmony  of  color  and  form,  270,  271. 
Holding  the  attention,  123-152. 
Hollingworth,  128,  129,  130,  147,  225, 

241,  276,  314,  319,  326,  328. 
Hotchkiss,  2. 

Ideo-motor  action,  282,  283. 

Increasing  the  strength  of  motives, 
311-314- 

Influence  of  surrounding  advertise- 
ments, 200-203. 

Imitation,  283. 

Instinct,  ii<5,  117. 

Intensity,  158,  160. 

Intention,  283,  293, 

Interests,  120-122. 

James,  84,  121,  293. 
Jastrow,  250,  262. 


Laws  of  recall,  155. 
Learning,  216. 

Mahin,  2. 

Mean  variation,  75. 
Measurements  of  variability,  75-79. 
Median,  73,  74. 
Mediums,  28-29,  37-47. 
Memory,  216-248. 
as  affected  by  attention,  226. 
as  affected  by  divided   repetitions, 

243,  244. 
as  affected  by  length  of  series,  219. 
as  affected  by  number  of  repetitions, 

218,  219. 
as  affected  by  rhythm,  241. 
as  affected  by   will  to  leani,   242, 

243. 
definition  of,  216. 

of  different  parts  of  series,  219-226. 
value  of  different    kinds   of  facts, 

245-247. 
value  of  duplicated  advertisements, 

231,  235,  236. 
value  of  frequency,  226,  227,  228. 
value  of  illustrations,  240. 
value  of  inside  and  outside  edge  of 

page,  239. 
value  of  interest  incentives,  240,  241. 
value  of  right  and  left  pages,  237. 
value  of  size,  226,  229,  231-235. 
value  of  top  and  bottom  of  page,  239.« 
value  of  varied  advertisements,  231, 
236,  237. 
Meuimann,  219. 
Mode,  73,  74. 

Movements,  clasdfication  of,  278-281. 
Miinsterberg,  162. 
Myers,  159,  180,  219,  220. 

Next  reading  advertisements,  102-106. 
Nonsense  syllables,  216. 

Occupation,  23. 

Order  of  merit  method,  61-63,  65. 

Perception,  196. 
as  fusion  of  sensations,  196,  197. 
as  involving  memory,  198,  199. 


I 


INDEX 


333 


Pictures,  204,  273,  276,  300-303. 
Pillsbury,  124,  126,  127. 
Primacy,  158,  160,  179,  180. 
Probable  error,  77,  78. 

Qualities  of  lines,  267. 

Radossawljewitsch,  245. 
Rate  of  forgetting,  244,  245. 
Reading,  208-215. 
Reasoning,  307-311. 
Recency,  158,  160,  179,  180. 
Rectangles,  268,  269. 
Remote  images,  283. 
Resident  images,  283. 
Return  coupon,  303-307. 
Returns,  effect  of  frequency  on, 
326. 
effect  of  size  on,  320-324. 
Richardson,  3. 

Salesmanship,  4. 

Scott,  15,  39,  40,  41,  43,  46,  102, 
161,  200,  204,  232,  298,  307. 
Semi-interquartile  range,  76-77. 
Sensation,  48-56. 
Sensori-motor  action,  282,  283. 


324- 


103, 


Sex  differences,  317-319. 

Shryer,  n,  64,  66,  67,  304,  320,  324. 

Similarity,  157. 

Size,  165. 

Specific  drcidation,  35. 

Standard  deviation,  76. 

Starch,  44,  64,  147,  221,  222,  223,  225, 

232,  234,  306,  308,  322, 
Statistical  methods,  70-81. 
Stratton,  268. 
Strength  of  the  human  interests,  127- 

148. 
Strong,  62,  63,  128,  147,  163,  164, 165, 

167,  220,  232,  23s,  245. 
Succession,  156. 
Suggestion,  282,  283. 

Thomdike,  74,  75. 
Tipper,  2. 
Triangles,  268. 
Tyi)es  of  choice,  290-293. 
Typical  ideas,  199,  200. 

Wadsworth,  2. 
Washburn,  257,  258. 
Waste  circulation,  35. 
Wissler,  252. 


4 


Printed  m  the  United  States  of  America. 


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